Gene Splicing -1. DNA is made up of two separate strands of base s.pdf
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Gene Splicing - 1. DNA is made up of two separate strands of base sequences. The same sequence is found on both strands, but running in opposite directions. What word describes this characteristic? 2. What does the term “sticky ends” refer to in gene splicing? 3. What is a plasmid? How is a plasmid used in gene splicing? 4. What types of vectors are used to carry DNA from one species into the DNA of another species? Give examples. 5. What is a “transgenic organism”? Give examples 6. Why is it essential that the same restriction enzyme be used to cleave (cut) the DNA of both organisms used to create a transgenic organism? 7. Are there any factors other than technical ones that might slow — or even prevent — the use of bioengineering? Solution 1, The sequences present in both the strands of DNA running in opposite direction are called ANTIPARALLEL AND COMPLEMENTARY STRANDS. 2. STICKY ENDS refer to the DNA which has some extra nucleotides in one strand and overhangs extra than another strand. The nucleotides of the sticly ends are unpaired. 3. PLASMID : plasmid is an extrachromosomal materia present in the bacteris. These are autonoously replication circular genetic materials, characteristic of bacteris. Plasmids are used as vectors in recombinant DNA technology. Plasmids carry genes for antibiotic resistance and some other colony selection traits. 4. VECTORS: following types of vectors are used:.
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Long vs short read sequencing. Long read sequencing technology is po.pdf
Long vs short read sequencing. Long read sequencing technology is poised to replace short read
sequencing (e.g. Illumina).
a. What is the typical read length in short read sequencing, and what is the read length range for
long range sequencing?
b. What are the downsides for using short read sequencing for genome assembly/SNP calling,
and RNA isoform discovery/quantification?
c. Which genomic protocols and/or applications are expected to benefit the most from long read
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1. Sequencing DNA that are accessible (e.g. ATAC-seq/DNASE-seq).
2. Measuring histone modifications (e.g. for ChIP-seq).
3. Measuring gene expression levels.
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5. DNA sequencing for genome assembly.
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d. Bulk versus single cell. Most if not all genomics protocols described have been or can be
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3. Finding a good way to dissociate cells is difficult for many tissue-types.
e. You attend a seminar and hear about a super cool approach called SUPER AWESOME DNA-
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HeLa cells and K562). The speaker further shows that SAD-seq can be used to identify
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Genes code for gene products. What does this statement mean Briefly.pdf
Genes code for gene products. What does this statement mean? Briefly describe the structure of
DNA by using the following terms: nucleotide, strand, complementary, deoxyribose, phosphate,
anti-parallel, base pairing, adenine, cytosine. How many DNA molecules are in a chromosome?
How many genes are in an average bacterial chromosome? What is the purpose of DNA
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rRNA, mRNA, tRNA, terminator. (Know what each term means.) Where are operons found and
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Be able to predict the sequence of a complementary strand in both DNA and RNA synthesis, w
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transformation, conjugation and transduction. What are some practical implications of these
phenomena?
Solution
3. Genes code for gene products
Gene is a portion of DNA. It is made up of nucleotide sequences. It expresses itself and transfer
from one generation to next generation.
Gene expression means the nucleotide sequence is used for synthesizing a biomolecules-
generally it is protein but it may be RNA molecules. Here gene products are those proteins and
RNAs.
4. Structure of DNA
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that contains all genetic information of an
organism.
DNA has a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each spiral is
composed of polynucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of - deoxyribose, a kind of sugar with
5 carbon atoms; a phosphate group made of phosphorus and oxygen, and nitrogenous base. There
are four types of nucleotide: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G). Nucleotides
are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the
phosphate of the next, kn.
Nuclear Genomes(Short Answers and questions)
1. What did researchers find when they sequenced the centromeres of Arabidopsis? Why was this finding surprising?
Ans: Before the Arabidopsis sequences were obtained it was thought that these repeat sequences were by far the principal component of centromeric DNA. However, Arabidopsis centromeres also contain multiple copies of genome-wide repeats, along with a few genes, the latter at a density of 7–9 per 100 kb compared with 25 genes per 100 kb for the noncentromeric regions of Arabidopsis chromosomes. The discovery that centromeric DNA contains genes was a big surprise because it was thought that these regions were genetically inactive.
2. What differences in gene distribution and repetitive DNA content are seen when yeast and human chromosomes are compared?
Ans. A typical region of a human chromosome will have few genes (most of which will contain introns), several repeated sequences, and a large amount of nonrepetitive, nongenic DNA. Yeast chromosomes have higher gene densities, with very few genes containing introns, and have few repeated sequences and much less nongenic DNA.
3. The human genome contains about 50,000 fewer genes than was predicted by many researchers. Why were these initial predictions so high?
Ans. These early estimates were high because they were based on the supposition that, in most cases, a single gene specifies a single mRNA and a single protein. According to this model, the number of genes in the human genome should be similar to the number of proteins in human cells, leading to the estimates of 80,000–100,000. The discovery that the number of genes is much lower than this indicates that alternative splicing, the process by which exons from a pre-mRNA are assembled in different combinations so that more than one protein can be coded by a single gene is more prevalent than was originally appreciated.
4. What are the different methods used to catalog genes? What are the advantages or disadvantages of these methods?
Ans. Gene catalogs can be based on the known functions of genes, but such catalogs are incomplete because in most genomes many genes have unknown functions. Gene catalogs that are based on the identities of protein domains coded by genes are more comprehensive as these include many genes whose specific functions are unknown.
5. What is the function of the different genes in the human globin gene families?
Ans. The globins are the blood proteins that combine to make hemoglobin, each molecule of hemoglobin being made up of two a-type and two b-type globins.The a-globin cluster is located on chromosome 16 and the b-cluster on chromosome 11. Both clusters contain genes that are expressed at different developmental stages and each includes at least one pseudogene. Note that expression of the a-type gene x2 begins in the embryo and continues during the fetal stage; there is no fetal-specific a-type globin. The q pseudogene is expressed but its protein product is inactive. None of the other p
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long range sequencing?
b. What are the downsides for using short read sequencing for genome assembly/SNP calling,
and RNA isoform discovery/quantification?
c. Which genomic protocols and/or applications are expected to benefit the most from long read
sequencing?
1. Sequencing DNA that are accessible (e.g. ATAC-seq/DNASE-seq).
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3. Measuring gene expression levels.
4. Measuring messenger RNA isoform diversity.
5. DNA sequencing for genome assembly.
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d. Bulk versus single cell. Most if not all genomics protocols described have been or can be
adapted to probe gene regulation in a single cell. What are some of the difficulties that make
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applies.
1. The small number of molecules (DNA, RNA, protein) in a single cell is the general limiting
factor for single cell genomics.
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sure that you actually sequence one cell instead of multiple cells.
3. Finding a good way to dissociate cells is difficult for many tissue-types.
e. You attend a seminar and hear about a super cool approach called SUPER AWESOME DNA-
seq (SAD-seq). SAD-seq is able to measure, at nucleotide resolution, DNA bases that interact
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Genes code for gene products. What does this statement mean Briefly.pdf
Genes code for gene products. What does this statement mean? Briefly describe the structure of
DNA by using the following terms: nucleotide, strand, complementary, deoxyribose, phosphate,
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replication? (\"To make more DNA\" would not be a complete answer.) Summarize the process
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DNA polymerase, DNA ligase. (Know what each term means.) Summarize the process of RNA
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(translation) by using the following terms: genetic code, ribosome, mRNA, protein, amino acid,
tRNA, codon, anticodon, start codon, stop codons, polypeptide. (Know what each term means.)
Be able to predict the sequence of a complementary strand in both DNA and RNA synthesis, w
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sequence of a encoded by a nucleic acid, when the nucleic acid sequence is given. Classify
mutations by type and briefly describe how mutations arise, are prevented or repaired. Explain
why mutations are important by giving at least three different examples. Why do bacteria and
viruses mutate so much faster than eukaryotes? What are some consequences of Briefly explain
(and be able to compare and contrast) three different mechanisms of horizontal gene in bacteria:
transformation, conjugation and transduction. What are some practical implications of these
phenomena?
Solution
3. Genes code for gene products
Gene is a portion of DNA. It is made up of nucleotide sequences. It expresses itself and transfer
from one generation to next generation.
Gene expression means the nucleotide sequence is used for synthesizing a biomolecules-
generally it is protein but it may be RNA molecules. Here gene products are those proteins and
RNAs.
4. Structure of DNA
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that contains all genetic information of an
organism.
DNA has a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each spiral is
composed of polynucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of - deoxyribose, a kind of sugar with
5 carbon atoms; a phosphate group made of phosphorus and oxygen, and nitrogenous base. There
are four types of nucleotide: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G). Nucleotides
are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the
phosphate of the next, kn.
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1. What did researchers find when they sequenced the centromeres of Arabidopsis? Why was this finding surprising?
Ans: Before the Arabidopsis sequences were obtained it was thought that these repeat sequences were by far the principal component of centromeric DNA. However, Arabidopsis centromeres also contain multiple copies of genome-wide repeats, along with a few genes, the latter at a density of 7–9 per 100 kb compared with 25 genes per 100 kb for the noncentromeric regions of Arabidopsis chromosomes. The discovery that centromeric DNA contains genes was a big surprise because it was thought that these regions were genetically inactive.
2. What differences in gene distribution and repetitive DNA content are seen when yeast and human chromosomes are compared?
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3. The human genome contains about 50,000 fewer genes than was predicted by many researchers. Why were these initial predictions so high?
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5. What is the function of the different genes in the human globin gene families?
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One brain area in which neurogenesis is especially apparent is the:
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c.hypothalamus
D.hippocampus
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Therefore, the correct option is: D-hippocampus.
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three for other purposes. But there are units made that are actually called comparators. Is there
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Solution
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Introduction to genetics and genes unlocking the secrets of heredity by noor ...
Dedicated to all Zoologist
Microarray @ujjwal sirohi
A DNA microarray (also commonly known as DNA chip or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface.
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Human multi gene families
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One brain area in which neurogenesis is especially apparent is the.pdf
One brain area in which neurogenesis is especially apparent is the:
A.amygdala
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c.hypothalamus
D.hippocampus
Solution
The adult neurogenesis among mammals was initially found majorly in the dentate gyrus (DG)
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Therefore, the correct option is: D-hippocampus.
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Solution
Answer:
Haploid cells can undergo mitosis. It is beneficial for some plants and protists, the end result is
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Solution
1.
Phenotype
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Normal wings Brown eyes 610
Miniature wings Red eyes 590
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In a population of Gouldian Finches, 1200 have a white breast colora.pdf
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Solution
1200 have white. Let the symbol for recessive trait be \"p\" and that for dominant trait be \"P\".
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Basic Pneumatic Circuitry For control and automation 2. Contents Introduction Symbols
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Feedback Click the section to advance directly to it 3. Introduction This module shows the
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shown with the port connections Other components are single state symbols 5. Symbols single
acting actuators Single acting, sprung instroked Single acting, sprung outstroked Single acting,
sprung instroked, magnetic Single acting, sprung outstroked, magnetic 6. Symbols double acting
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through rod, adjustable cushions Double acting, magnetic, adjustable cushions Double acting,
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indicates the valve has 3 main ports and 2 states The valve symbol shows both of the states Port
numbering is to CETOP RP68P and shows: when the valve is operated at the 12 end port 1 is
connected to port 2 when reset to the normal state at the 10 end port 1 is connected to nothing (0)
2 12 10 3 1 11. Symbols valves A valve function is known by a pair of numbers e.g. 3/2. This
indicates the valve has 3 main ports and 2 states The valve symbol shows both of the states Port
numbering is to CETOP RP68P and shows: when the valve is operated at the 12 end port 1 is
connected to port 2 when reset to the normal state at the 10 end port 1 is connected to nothing (0)
2 12 10 3 1 12. Symbols val.
If noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds are so weak , how.pdf
If noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds are so weak , how are they able to hold
molecules in a particular conformation and hold two molecules (such as enzyme and substrate)
together?
Solution
The non-covalent interactions are weak forces like hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions,
electrostatic interactions, and Vander Waals forces. Conformations in the structure of proteins at
secondary and tertiary level are due to extensive hydrogen bonding. Though individually weak,
these non-covalent interactions are able to hold molecules in a particular conformation because,
they occur in large numbers. When a substrate binds to an enzyme, the attractive forces between
the substrate and the enzyme alter the enzyme\'s conformation. As the substrate approaches the
active site, these non-covalent interactions cause the active site to bend into such a shape that the
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in the shape of other regions of the enzyme molecule altering the overall conformation of the
enzyme. The conformational change in the enzyme allows the formation of more non-covalent
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How is the address of the individual of an array foundSolution.pdf
How is the address of the individual of an array found?
Solution
An array is a type of variable in C programming, one that you can examine for its size and
address. Now you uncover the deep, dark secret of beholding an array’s address.
The source code from Where the Array Lurks shows a teensy program that declares an int array
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Given the following information (ignore the top posts on the LEGO br.pdf
Given the following information (ignore the top posts on the LEGO bricks):
The short blocks have a thickness of 3.20±.01 mm
The tall blocks have a thickness of 9.60±.01 mm
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Solution
I a little confuse with this, but with the gaps I think that you are talking about the separation
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For each of these functions, is it one-to-one? Is it onto? For each of these functions, is it one-to-
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all functions are onto function because all functions have square operation..
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a) Write z = x + iy and separate sin(z) into real and imaginary parts: sin(z) = sin(x + iy) = sin(x)
cos(iy) + cos(x) sin(iy) = sin(x) cosh(y) + i cos(x) sinh(y) = i ? ( sin(x) cosh(y) = 0 cos(x) sinh(y)
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Discuss the history of operations, information, systems, and contingency management.
Solution
Answer 1. History of Operation Management
History of Operation Management has undergone many stages that shows shifts in thinking with
the evolution of management.
a. Pre-Industrial Stage:
This stage was prior to Industrial revolution. It was cotton-based guild system. The production of
goods took place in homes or cottages. The craftsmen guided apprentices to perform better hand
work.
b. Post-Industrial Revolution Era
An Industrial Revolution came into existence during 18th century and its impact spread to all
European nations and United States. Industrial Revolution led to two major developments in
Operation Management. First is widespread replacement of human power with machine power.
Secondly, the factories were established everywhere for operations. Lot of inventions were made
during that period.Gasoline and electricity were invented in 1800s. Old cottage systems were
replaced by factory system. Mass production came into existence.
The operation management history can be divided into five stages
Answer 2. History of Information Management
Information management has its history, its origin dated back to post-industrial era. With mass
production all over, the people were feeling the need for information exchange in more
formalized manner. In those days the information management was only in germ phase i.e. the
records were maintained properly handwritten on papers in the files.
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all do was file management. But the employees were able to retrieve information accurately and
speedily.
During 1990s, the information management was dealt only by high qualified employees of the
companies. It maintained important documents of the company. After 2000, the information
management itself became a profession. The companies specializing in data protection are
outsourced with the file management job. During these years, the information management has
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Dr. Butthead received a new cell line and he wants to see which culture media grows the cells
the best. He cultures them in a supplemented (s) and complete (c) media. After 2 days he dilutes
a sample from each flask 1/2 (100uL of cells + 100 uL of trypan blue) His hemacytometer counts
for S are 15,14,19,12 and C are 92,100,95,and 84.
1. Which is the concentration of cells in each flask? (cell per mL)
2. Which media works best? explain why?
3. cells must be fed if they are too concentrated (ie 1x10^6 cells/ml). Does either flask need to be
fed? if yes why and describe how to dilute the cells to 5x10^4 cell/ml in a volume of 10 mL.
Thank you for your help
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1. Which is the concentration of cells in each flask? (cell per mL)
Dilution factor =2
Supplemented (s)
Cell/mL=(15+14+19+12)/4 x dilution factor x 10^ 4
=30 x 10^ 4 cells/mL
Complete (c) media
Cell/mL=(92+100+95+84)/4 x dilution factor x 10^ 4
=185.5 x 10^ 4 cells/mL
2. Which media works best? explain why?
Complete (c) media works best since it promotes cell proliferation better than supplemented
media.
3. cells must be fed if they are too concentrated (ie 1x10^6 cells/ml). Does either flask need to be
fed? if yes why and describe how to dilute the cells to 5x10^4 cell/ml in a volume of 10 mL.
Cells in the Complete (c) media needs to be fed since the it is too concentrated
Stock of cells = 185.5 x 10^ 4 cells/mL
Required = 5 x10^4 cell/ml
Volume = 10 mL
C1V1= C2V2
(stock) (required)
V1=C2V2/C1
V1 = ( 5 x10^4 X 10 mL )/ 185.5 x 10^ 4
=0.27 mL
0.27 mL of stock + 9.73 mL of media gives 10 mL of media with 5 x10^4 cell/ml concentration.
Describe or explain how SNPs in gens at evolutionary conserved break.pdf
Describe or explain how SNPs in gens at evolutionary conserved breakpoints can lead to
dramatic phenotypic differences between species like chimpanzees and humans even though
their genomes are 98% similar? Provide and describe or explain an example of one gene with
SNP differences between gorillas and humans that might have resulted changes between humans
and apes.
Solution
A DNA sequence is a linear combination of four nucleotides. The two sequences when compared
position by position, and wherever a different nucleotides at the same position occurs, that\'s a
SNP. SNPs reflect past mutations that were mostly (but not exclusively) unique events, and two
individuals sharing a variant allele are thereby marked with a common evolutionary heritage.
Analysis of shared pattern of SNP variation can identify the genes similar to our ancestors.
Although humans and chimps have many identical genes, they often use them in different ways.
Same gene can be expressed more in humans and less in chimps. The same genes are expressed
in the same brain regions in human, chimp and gorilla, but in different amounts thereby resulting
in difference in brain activity. Thousands of differences like these affect brain development and
function, and help explain why the human brain is larger and smarter.
The chimpanzee immune system is surprisingly similar to ours. Most viruses that cause diseases
like AIDS and hepatitis in human can also infect chimpanzees. In case of malaria parasite which
can be transmitted by mosquito bite in human does not infect chimps. A small DNA difference
makes human red blood cells vulnerable to this parasite, while chimp blood cells are resistant.
Also the characteristic of speech in human is the result of SNP which is absent in chimps or apes..
create a binary search tree from an empty one by adding the key valu.pdf
create a binary search tree from an empty one by adding the key value alphabetically in c++
Solution
//Binary Search Tree Program
#include
#include
using namespace std;
class BinarySearchTree
{
private:
struct tree_node //structure to hold Binary search tree
{
tree_node* left;
tree_node* right;
int data;
};
tree_node* root;
public:
BinarySearchTree() //constructor of Binary search tree
{
root = NULL;
}
//function declarations
bool isEmpty() const { return root==NULL; }
void print_inorder();
void inorder(tree_node*);
void print_preorder();
void preorder(tree_node*);
void print_postorder();
void postorder(tree_node*);
void insert(int);
void remove(int);
};
// Smaller elements go left
// larger elements go right
void BinarySearchTree::insert(int d) //insert function to BST
{
tree_node* t = new tree_node;
tree_node* parent;
t->data = d;
t->left = NULL;
t->right = NULL;
parent = NULL;
// is this a new tree?
if(isEmpty()) root = t;
else
{
//Note: ALL insertions are as leaf nodes
tree_node* curr;
curr = root;
// Find the Node\'s parent
while(curr)
{
parent = curr;
if(t->data > curr->data) curr = curr->right;
else curr = curr->left;
}
if(t->data < parent->data)
parent->left = t;
else
parent->right = t;
}
}
void BinarySearchTree::remove(int d)
{
//Locate the element
bool found = false;
if(isEmpty())
{
cout<<\" This Tree is empty! \"<data == d)
{
found = true;
break;
}
else
{
parent = curr;
if(d>curr->data) curr = curr->right;
else curr = curr->left;
}
}
if(!found)
{
cout<<\" Data not found! \"<left == NULL && curr->right != NULL)|| (curr->left !=
NULL
&& curr->right == NULL))
{
if(curr->left == NULL && curr->right != NULL)
{
if(parent->left == curr)
{
parent->left = curr->right;
delete curr;
}
else
{
parent->right = curr->right;
delete curr;
}
}
else // left child present, no right child
{
if(parent->left == curr)
{
parent->left = curr->left;
delete curr;
}
else
{
parent->right = curr->left;
delete curr;
}
}
return;
}
//We\'re looking at a leaf node
if( curr->left == NULL && curr->right == NULL)
{
if(parent->left == curr) parent->left = NULL;
else parent->right = NULL;
delete curr;
return;
}
//Node with 2 children
// replace node with smallest value in right subtree
if (curr->left != NULL && curr->right != NULL)
{
tree_node* chkr;
chkr = curr->right;
if((chkr->left == NULL) && (chkr->right == NULL))
{
curr = chkr;
delete chkr;
curr->right = NULL;
}
else // right child has children
{
//if the node\'s right child has a left child
// Move all the way down left to locate smallest element
if((curr->right)->left != NULL)
{
tree_node* lcurr;
tree_node* lcurrp;
lcurrp = curr->right;
lcurr = (curr->right)->left;
while(lcurr->left != NULL)
{
lcurrp = lcurr;
lcurr = lcurr->left;
}
curr->data = lcurr->data;
delete lcurr;
lcurrp->left = NULL;
}
else
{
tree_node* tmp;
tmp = curr->right;
curr->data = tmp->data;
curr->right = tmp->right;
delete tmp;
}
}
return;
}
}
void BinarySearchTree::print_inorder()
{
inorder(root);
}
void BinarySearchTree::inorder(tree_node* p) .
Data Analysis correlation. A correlation R in regression analysis t.pdf
Data Analysis correlation. A correlation R in regression analysis that would he generated if
only one independent variable were considered at a time. You will recall that the Multiple R is
just the square root of R square. So the correlations shown in figure 13.21 are essentially the
square roots of the amount of variance shared between each of the variables shown.
Solution
The tables shows the multicollinearity among the variables only. The table does not reveals
anything. In the sense we cannnot make any predictions. So, the correlation coefficients in this
table represents only positive or negative association between the predictor variable..
Conduct outside reading on Salla disease. Explain its underlying mole.pdf
Conduct outside reading on Salla disease. Explain its underlying molecular biology, cause,
signs, symptoms and progression of the disease. Address whether any cures have been found. If
yes describe them. If no explain why this is the case.
Solution
Salla disease is a type of allelic disorder which falls under sialic acid storage disease
characterized by a delay in development, ataxia, and some dysmorphic features. Additional signs
are hypopigmentation of skin and hair, mild skeletal dysplasias, and course facial features.There
is an accumulation of the charged monosaccharide sialic acid (N-acetylneuraminic acid) in
lysosomes as a result of which sialic acid cannot be transported out of lysosomes.The mode of
inheritence is autosomal recessive disease. The diagnosis is dependent upon the raised excretion
of sialic acid in urine. Electron microscopic studies of reveal a lot about it.
There is actually a homozygous missense mutation in SLC17A5 which codes for the transport
protein called sialin. People with salla disease have normal life span but remain differently abled.
There is no cure for this disease as its a homozygous missense mutation which is having dual
mode of action-either altering the amino acids in translated proteins or else remaining silent.
References
1. Gorlin, R,J., Cohen, M,M., & Hennekam, R,C,M. (2001). Syndromes of the head and
neck.New York: Oxford university press.
2. Barness, E,G., Barness,L,A., & Farrell, P,M. (2017). Metabolic diseases. Amsterdam:IOS
press BV..
Can we accept mobile apps as a part of data communication networks.pdf
Can we accept mobile apps as a part of data communication networks?
Solution
Answer:
Yes, we accept mobile apps as a part of data communication because mobile computing involves
mobile communication. It allows transmission of data like texts , audio , vedio and now a days
VoIP calls are made through the mobile apps. There are many mobiles apps which gives the
services like voice over the internet. Thus mobile apps play a very important role in data
communication network..
At absolute temperature T, a black body radiates its peak intensity a.pdf
At absolute temperature T, a black body radiates its peak intensity at wavelength lambda At
absolute temperature 2T, what would be the wavelength of the peak intensity?
Solution
For a particular black body, accoring to wein law
T=Constant
When Temperature equal to 2T,
(2T)= constant . this is possible only when =/2
/2 (2T)= T= constant
Answer :=/2.
An unsaturated solution of Na2SO4 is present in equilibrium with its.pdf
An unsaturated solution of Na2SO4 is present in equilibrium with its vapor in a closed vessel. (a)
How many phases and components are present? (b) What is the number of degrees of freedom of
the system? Identify the independent variables
Solution
No. of components = 2 (Na2SO4 and water - as each phase can be described by these two
components only)
No. of phases = 3 ( solid and liquid and vapor)
degrees of freedom = 2-3+2 = 1.
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