- Cells face difficulties as they increase in size, including placing more demands on DNA and less efficient nutrient/waste transport. If a cell grows too large without its DNA increasing, an "information crisis" will occur. - Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and found in the early embryo, while adult stem cells are multipotent and found in adult tissues where they generate specialized cell types. - DNA carries genetic information through genes located on chromosomes. During cell division, chromosomes with one set from each parent separate and cells receive a complete set, maintaining genetic integrity.

1. Chapter 10 Study Guide
Limits to cell size
An organism gets larger because it produces more cells (in most cases). Most cells divide after
growing to a certain point.
What are some of the difficulties a cell faces as it increases in size? The larger a cell
becomes, the more demands a cell places on its DNA. In addition, a larger cell is less efficient
in moving nutrients & waste materials across the cell membrane.
Information "overload" >> is when a cell increases in size, its DNA does not. If a cell were to
grow too large, an "information crisis would occur.
pluripotent , such cell as a fertilized egg and the first few cells in an embryo are able to form
any kind of cell and tissue
what are iPs cells? induced pluripotent stem cells
multipotent are adult stem cells which means they can produce many, but not all, types of
differentiated cells
produce many of differentiated cells
totipotents are the fertilized egg and the 1rst few cells from embryonic development. They are
literally able to everything to form all the tissues in the body. (wow)
embryonic vs. adult stem cells (which is which? differences?)
embryonic stem cells are found in the inner cell mass of the early embryo,
pluripotent, researchers have grown stem cells isolated from human embryos in
culture
adult stem cells are adult organisms contain some types of stem cells, multipotent
produce many differentiated cells, ASC of a given organ or tissue usually produce that type of
tissue
Chromosomes
Human cells have 46 chromosomes, 23 come from mom and 23 come from dad. The same
chromosomes means that the set of genes are the same. The 2 sets of chromosomes are
homologous.
Role of chromosomes is to have our genetic info or carrier of our genes. Genes are
also located in specific positions on chromosomes.
Apoptosis
is programmed cell death that plays a key role in the development of tissue and organs
Benign vs. malignant
Benign are non cancerous cells...
malignant are cancerous cells
Importance of stem cells
Stem cells are unspecialized from which differentiated cells develop.

2. Potential benefits of stem cell research include the repair or replacement of damaged cellss and
tissues. It is also controversial because it involves ethical issues of life and death.
embryonic stem cells
found in the inner cell mass of the early embryo
pluripotent
researchers have grown stem cells isolated from human embryos in culture
adult stem cells
adult organisms contain some types of stem cells
multipotent produce many types of differientiated cells
ASC of a given organ or tissue usually produce that type of tissue
Differentiation and specialization
differentiation is when individual cells become specialized in both form and function through this
process
once cells of a certain type, such as nerve cells or muscle cells, have formed, the
cells cannot develop into a different type of cell
Definition of cancer
cancer is a disorder in which cells divide uncontrollably, forming a mass of cells called a tumor.
How cancer cells are different than normal cells? Similar?
Telomerase can be activated, enabling cells to grow and profilerate rapidly.
What causes cancer
caused by defects in genes that regulate cell growth
treatments: removal of cancerous tumors, radiation, chemotherapy
Chapter 11 Study Guide
How does an organism pass its characteristics on to its offspring?
An individual's characteristics are determined by factors that are passed from one parental
generation to the next.
Describe Mendel’s studies and conclusions about inheritance
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who founded the modern science of genetics. He used
ordinary garden peas that he was growing in his garden, as a model system, because it was
convenient to study & can tell us how other organisms function.
Explain how Mendel’s principles apply to all organisms
Summary of Mendel's principles:
1. inheritance of biology characteristics is determined by genes; passed from parent to offspring
2. When there are 2 or more alleles of the gene for a trait; some alleles may be dominant or
recessive

3. 3. Each organism has 2 copies of each gene - 1 from mom, 1 from dad. These genes
segregate during meiosis.
4. Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of each other.
Know how to fill out a Punnett square (monohybrid) and interpret it
Punnett squares use mathematical probability to help predict the genotype and phenotype
combinations in a genetic cross. It is a diagram that can be used to predict the genotype and
phenotype combinations of a genetic cross.
Genotype vs. phenotype
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism.
Phenotype is the physical characteristics of an organism.
Homozygous vs. heterozygous
Explain the relationship between genes and the environment
-how the genes actually unfold depends on the environment
- "phenotype is largely determined by the genotype" but environment also plays a role
- an individuals actual phenotype is determined by its environment as wel as its genes
- environmental conditions can affect gene expression and influence gentically determined traits
List the exceptions to Mendel’s principles
Incomplete dominance: situation in which 1 allele is not completely dominat over
another allele
Codominance :situation in which the phenotypes produced by both alleles are
completely expressed
Multiple alleles:genes with more than 2 alleles
Polygenic traits: traits controlled by two or more genes
Contrast the number of chromosomes in body cells and in gametes
the diploid cells of most adult organisms contain 2 complete sets of inherited chromosomes &
adult organisms contain 2 complete sets of inherited chromosomes and 2 complete sets of
genes
Human cells have 46 chromosomes, 23 come from mom and 23 come from dad
Summarize the events of meiosis (in each division; focus on the chromosomes – number
and location)
Contrast meiosis and mitosis

4. meiosis is the process in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the
separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell
- form of cell division by which games (sex cells) are reprodcued
- sexual reproduction (genetically different cells)
- two divisions (meiosis 1 and meiosis )
Meiosis
-chromosomes line up and then move to separate daughter cells
- reduces the chromosome # by half
-produces 4 genetically different haploid cells
Mitosis
-when 2 sets of genetic material separate, each daughter cell recieves 1 complete set of
chromosomes
-does not normally change the chromosome # of the original cell
-results in the production of genetically identical diploid cells
Describe how alleles from different genes can be inherited together
Alleles of different genes tend to be inherited together from 1 generation to the next when those
genes are located on the same chromosome.
Define homologous, diploid, haploid, tetrad, crossing over
homologous: term used to refer to chromosomes in which 1 set comes from the male parent
and 1 set comes from the female parent
diploid:
haploid: term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of genes, gametes are
hapoid
tetrad:
crossing over:chromatids of homologous chromosomes cross over one another, crossed
sections are exchanged
Where does crossing over happen?
Crossing over happens during Meiosis, prohase 1
or it happens when nonsister chromatids exchange genes
Chapter 12 Study Guide
Franklin and Watson/Crick
Role of DNA
Dna makes up gene..must be capable of storing, copying, and transmitting the genetic info in a
cell. Genes, made up of DNA carry chemical codes for biological processes. It is chemical
code that stores genetic info, is copied when a cell divides, and transmits info from 1 generation
to the next.
What is a nucleotide?

5. made up of 3 basic components:
(1) a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
(2) a phosphate group
(3) nitrogenous bases (contains nitrogen)
- all nucleotides do not have protein
Base pairs (4 bases; spelling does count)
base pairs us the principle that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine & thymine and
between guanine & cytosine.
DNA has 4 covalent bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
Bonds (hydrogen vs. covalent)
Covalent bonds =strong, In a strand that are joined by covalent bonds formed between the
sugar and one of the nucleotides and phosphate group of the next
Components of DNA
Structure of DNA
RNA, like DNA consists of a long cain of nucleotides, and is made up of the same things as
DNA (a5 carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base) except for 1 small
difference: the sugar group in RNA is ribose. RNA also differs in DNA in the fact that is single
stranded, and has the base uracil instead of thymine (therefore, in RNA A bonds with U.)
Chargaff’s rule
the double helix model explains chargaff's model rule of base pairing & how the 2 strands of
DNA are held together.
Antiparallel strands
What is the double helix model?
- the double helix structure of DNA explains how it can be copied but it does not explain how a
gene works
Nitrogenous bases
Why do we need DNAreplication
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic replication
Prokaryotic
occurs in the cytolasm, DNA is arranged in a single circular chromosome
Eukaryotic
occurs in the nucleus, Begins at several points on the DNA molecule
Both
DNA polymerase joins ncleotides, new strands are complementary to the strands they were
made from

6. What happens when there is damaged DNA?
You need to be able to explain the process of replication
The Steps of Replication
(1) DNA unwind
(2) DNA is "unzipped", allowing 2 replication forks to form
(3) New bases are added to unwound DNA strands following base pair rules (A -T) , (G-G)
(4) The DNA molecules are composed of 1 new strand and one old
**During replication, the double helix separates into 2 strands , produces 2 new complementary
strands, each strand of DNA serves as a template for the new strand.
Results of replication
2 DNA molecules identical to each other and to the original molecule. New DNA molecules
have one original and one new strand.
How to do base pairing sequencing? Filing in complementary strand
Chapter 13
Know how RNA differs from DNA
(1) the sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose
(2) RNA is generally single- stranded and not double -stranded
(3) RNA contains uracil in place of thymine
Know how the cell makes RNA
Know the three different types of RNA
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
- mRNA carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to
the rest of the cell
- rRNA makes up the major part of ribosomes, proteins are assembled on ribosomes
-tRNA transfers or moves, amino acds to ribosomes during protein synthesis
What is the importance of mRNA?
- not sure
- could produce different forms of RNA
-may play role in evolution
-small changes = dramatic effects
Where does transcription take place in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Transcription is when DNA is transcribed into message in nucleus.
eukaryotes: cytoplasm
What RNA molecules are involved in transcription?

7. transcription requires an enzyme known as RNA polymerase which binds to the DNA and
separates the DNA strands...it then uses one strand of DNA as a template to assemble
nucleotides into a strand of RNA
RNA polymerase does not bind DNA just anywhere, it only binds to regions of DNA known as
Promoters, which have specific base sequences
What is transcription?
Transcription is when DNA is transcribed into message , RNA molecules are produced by
copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA
Know the central dogma of molecular biology and understand why it is important
the central dogma is that information is transferred from DNA to RNA proteins
-useful generalization
Know how to use the Amino Acid Decoding chart
What is translation?
Translation is converting the genetic code into proteins. the sequence of nucleotides from
mRNA are coded instructions for amino acids that will form a polypeptide. The decoding of
mRNA message into a protein is called translation.
Where does translation take place in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
in prokaryotic cells it occurs in the cytoplasm
in eukaryotic cells it occurs in the cytoplasm
What RNA molecules are involved in translation?
tRNA and rRNA
rRNA molecules help hold ribosomal proteins in place and help locate the beggining of the
mRNA strand and also helps carry out the joining of amino acid
tRNa carries and delivers the correct amino acid called on by each codon
**all 3 RNA molecules are used
What is an anticodon?
3 unpaired bases that is complementary to the mRNA codon...
***each three letter "word" is known as codon
example: mRNA codon is AUG so the tRNA anticodon is UAC
Explain how the codon and anticodon is like a “lock and key” situation.
What are mutations?
Mutations are heritable changes in genetic information i.e. gene mutations, chromosomal
mutations
Understand how mutations affect genes?
small changes in words can directly alter it's meaning. and the overall sentence. Same theory
goes with how one gene can affect the whole body of an organism.

8. Be able to understand, explain, and identify point mutations (substitution, insertion,
deletion (frameshift)) and chromosomal mutations
Point mutations: involves changes in 1 or a few nucleotides that occur at a single point in the
DNA sequence...happens during replication...can be passed on from cell to cell.
Substition: 1 base is changed to another base..
affects no more than 1 amino acid, sometimes none at all
Inertions and deletions: 1 bases is inserted or removed from DNA
frameshift mutation: still read 3 bases at a time, so reading from the genetic message is shifted.
Chapter 16 Study Guide
Charles Darwin’s contribution to science
Explain how other scientists’ work helped Darwin develop his theory of natural selection
Who was Hutton and Lyell? Why were they important?
Artificial vs. Natural selection
3 situations in which natural selection occurs
Explain the principle of common descent
What does fitness mean?
What is natural selection? (be able to give examples)
Link fossils, embryology, anatomy (homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures) and
molecular biology to evidence of evolution
Charles Darwin’s contribution to science
Darwin developed a scientific theory of biological evolution that explains how modern organisms
evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors.
Explain how other scientists’ work helped Darwin develop his theory of natural selection
Darwin realized that Malthus's reasoning applied even more to other organisms than it did to
humans. Meaning most offspring die before reaching maturity, and only a few of those that
survive manage to reproduce. This was important because he needed a mechanism to why
and how evolution occured.
Who was Hutton and Lyell? Why were theyimportant?
Hutton and Lyell contributed ideas about the age of Earth and the processes that shape the
planet. Hutton and Lyell concluded that Earth is extremely old & that the processes that that
changed Earth in the past are the same processes that operate in the present. For example,
they explained the formation of the Grand Canyon is from forces beneath Earth's surface can
push rock layer upward, tilting, twisting them in the process.
Artificial vs. Natural selection
Artificial selection is also known as the the selective breeding of domesticated organisms by
humans to enhance useful traits. Nature provides the variations and humans select those they
find useful (this was a recognition of natural variation)

9. 3 situations in which natural selection occurs
Natural selection occurs in any situation:
Struggle for existence in which more individuals are born than can survive,
Variation and adaptation in which there is natural heritable variation,
Survival of the fittest in which there is variable fitness among individuals.
What is natural selection? (be able to give examples)
Natural selection acts only on inherited traits. Natural selection is the process by which
organisms that are most suited to their environment survive and reproduce most sucessfully
also called survival of the fittest.
Explain the principle of common descent
Darwin proposed that over many generations, adaptation could cause sucessful species to
evolve into new species. Darwin's theory implies that life has been on Earth for a long time-long
enough for descent with modification to offcu Every organisms alive today us descended from
parents who survived and reproduced. All species (living & descent ) are descended from
ancient common ancestors- decent with modification.
What does fitness mean?
Fitness is how well an organism can survive and reproduce in its environment.
Link fossils, embryology, anatomy (homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures)
and molecular biology to evidence of evolution