Gene mutations can result from errors in DNA replication or damage to DNA. They involve changes to the nucleic acid sequence and can be caused spontaneously, during DNA repair, or by exposure to mutagens. Certain mutations may provide advantages and help create new species over generations, like a mutation causing a butterfly's new color that aids survival. Scientists are researching ways to intentionally introduce mutations to create humanoid mutants and potentially super-humans in the future through means like genetic editing, removable cyborg extensions, or lasting transformations from bionic implants. However, transforming humans permanently through gene editing raises many ethical issues.

1. Gene mutation :- road towards creation of
HUMANOID mutants AND SUPER-HUMANS
Spandan Sarkar | Priya Menon| St. Joseph’s High School

2. What is gene mutation ?
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4. definition
• In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of
the genome of an organism, virus, or extra chromosomal DNA. Viral
genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors
during DNA or viral replication, mitosis, or meiosis or other types
of damage to DNA (such as pyrimidine dimers caused by exposure
to ultraviolet radiation), which then may undergo error-prone repair
(especially micro homology-mediated end joining), cause an error during
other forms of repair, or cause an error during replication (translesion
synthesis). Mutations may also result from insertion or deletion of segments
of DNA due to mobile genetic elements.

5. How does a gene mutate ?
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7. Mechanism
• Mutations can involve the duplication of large sections of DNA, usually
through genetic recombination. These duplications are a major source of raw
material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in
animal genomes every million years. Most genes belong to larger gene
families of shared ancestry, detectable by their sequence homology. For
example, a butterfly may produce offspring with new mutations. The majority
of these mutations will have no effect; but one might change the color of one
of the butterfly's offspring, making it harder (or easier) for predators to see. If
this color change is advantageous, the chances of this butterfly's surviving
and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of
butterflies with this mutation may form a larger percentage of the population

8. Causes of gene mutation
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10. The four causes are listed below
• Four classes of mutations are
• (1) spontaneous mutations (molecular decay),
• (2) mutations due to error-prone replication bypass of naturally occurring
DNA damage (also called error-prone translesion synthesis),
• (3) errors introduced during DNA repair, and
• (4) induced mutations caused by mutagens. Scientists may also deliberately
introduce mutant sequences through DNA manipulation for the sake of
scientific experimentation.

11. NOMENCLATURE
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13. nomenclature
• In order to categorize a mutation as such, the "normal" sequence must be obtained
from the DNA of a "normal" or "healthy" organism (as opposed to a "mutant" or "sick"
one), it should be identified and reported; ideally, it should be made publicly available
for a straightforward nucleotide-by-nucleotide comparison, and agreed upon by the
scientific community or by a group of expert geneticists and biologists, who have the
responsibility of establishing the standard or so-called "consensus" sequence. This
step requires a tremendous scientific effort. Once the consensus sequence is known,
the mutations in a genome can be pinpointed, described, and classified. The
committee of the Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) has developed the
standard human sequence variant nomenclature, which should be used by
researchers and DNA diagnostic centers to generate unambiguous mutation
descriptions. In principle, this nomenclature can also be used to describe mutations
in other organisms. The nomenclature specifies the type of mutation and base or
amino acid changes.

14. Role of carcinogenesis
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16. Role of carcinogenesis
• On the other hand, a mutation may occur in a somatic cell of an organism. Such
mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell within the same organism.
The accumulation of certain mutations over generations of somatic cells is part of
cause of malignant transformation, from normal cell to cancer cell. Cells with
heterozygous loss-of-function mutations (one good copy of gene and one mutated
copy) may function normally with the unmutated copy until the good copy has been
spontaneously somatically mutated. This kind of mutation happens often in living
organisms, but it is difficult to measure the rate. Measuring this rate is important in
predicting the rate at which people may develop cancer. Point mutations may arise
from spontaneous mutations that occur during DNA replication. The rate of mutation
may be increased by mutagens. Mutagens can be physical, such as radiation
from UV rays, X-rays or extreme heat, or chemical (molecules that misplace base
pairs or disrupt the helical shape of DNA). Mutagens associated with cancers are
often studied to learn about cancer and its prevention.

17. Humanoid mutants
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19. Gene present in an humanoid mutant
• Homo superior (Human mutants) possess the X-Gene (mutant gene, X-
Factor, "mutator gene") positioned on the 23rd chromosome (sexual
chromosome). The X-Gene activation leads (via transcription and translation)
to the production of an exotic protein. This protein produces chemical signals
inducing mutations on other genes, ending up with mutant organisms,
variously empowered. The activated mutants, once through a mutation or X-
Mutation, are told to be "mutated", which is also told of mutants who suffer
further mutations through experimentation.

20. Possibility of creating a super-human in future
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22. Possibility of creating a super-human in future
• There are a variety of fields wherein a super human feature could potentially
be created. And that will not be the result of a single discipline but of
the convergence of multiple scientific fields. Currently, these have a
restorative focus rather than a developmental one, although each can evolve
towards that in the future. Removable cyborg extensions – wherein the
tools enhancing the individual can easily be put away at the end of use.
• Cyborg-humans – technologies causing lasting, but not irreversible
transformation like prosthetic limbs, digital tattoos and bionic implants
• Technologies changing humans forever – genetic editing (such as
CRISPR) is the one that raises the most ethical and moral questions.