This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a new routing protocol called Vector-Based Forwarding (VBF) for underwater sensor networks. VBF is a location-based routing approach that uses the position of nodes to efficiently route data through a network of moving underwater sensors. It forms redundant forwarding paths between source and destination nodes to improve reliability. VBF also uses a self-adaptation algorithm to allow nodes to discard redundant packets to reduce energy consumption. The paper argues that VBF provides robust, scalable and energy efficient routing for underwater sensor networks.
ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR VOID AVOIDANCE IN UWSN USING RESIDUAL ...IJCNCJournal
Abstract. Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSN) is attracting the interest of most of the researcher because of the good opportunity to discover and catch the oceanic activities. As we know radio waves could not work efficiently in Underwater so Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASN) emerged as a most prevalent network to an outstanding range. UASN have some constraints in its deployment as well as acoustic wave communication. This limitation involves large propagation delay, transmission cost, very less bandwidth, high signal attenuation, and restricted accessibility of the nodes and non-availability of the recharging of nodes leads to the development of some energy saving algorithms to prolong the lifetime of the nodes. Routing technique must be rich enough to overcome all these constraints and give an energyefficient path by avoiding void regions and increase the network lifetime. Depth based algorithms proposed in the last decades use depth factor to estimate the path from sender to the sink. By having the holding time calculation they minimize the replication of information. Here, this per have proposed Energy Efficient Void Avoidance Routing Scheme for UWSN (E2RV) using Residual Energy and Depth Variance it used two hop node information to escape the void shacks in the network area along with this it is using regularized remaining energy and normalized depth of the nodes to estimate the path from data generating node to sink
node. In this way E2RV not only removing the void holes but also maintains the energy depletion of the network nodes and upsurge the network lifetime. Simulation results show the improvement of E2RV over previously defined algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio, duplications, less energy depletion and increased lifetime.
RMEER: Reliable Multi-path Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Underwater W...IJECEIAES
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is interesting area for researchers. To extract the information from seabed to water surface the the majority numbers of routing protocols has been introduced. The design of routing protocols faces many challenges like deployment of sensor nodes, controlling of node mobility, development of efficient route for data forwarding, prolong the battery power of the sensor nodes, and removal of void nodes from active data forwarding paths. This research article focuses the design of the Reliable Multipath Energy Efficient Routing (RMEER) which develops the efficient route between sensor nodes, and prolongs the battery life of the nodes. RMEER is a scalable and robust protocol which utilizes the powerful fixed courier nodes in order to enhance the network throughput, data delivery ratio, network lifetime and reduces the end-to-end delay. RMEER is also an energy efficient routing protocol for saving the energy level of the nodes. We have used the NS2.30 simulator with AquaSim package for performance analysis of RMEER.We observed that the simulation performance of RMEER is better than D-DBR protocol.
Geographic routing protocols for underwater wireless sensor networks a surveyijwmn
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different
challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery power, defective underwater channels, and high variable
propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is finding an efficient route between a source and a
destination. Consequently, great efforts have been made for designing efficient protocols while considering
the unique characteristics of underwater communication. Several routing protocols are proposed for this
issue and can be classified into geographic and non-geographic routing protocols. In this paper we focus
on the geographic routing protocols. We introduce a review and comparison of different algorithms
proposed recently in the literature. We also presented a novel taxonomy of these routing in which the
protocols are classified into three categories (greedy, restricted directional flooding and hierarchical)
according to their forwarding strategies.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Survey on Energy-Efficient Routing Algorithms for Underwater Wireless Sensor ...Editor IJCATR
In underwater environment, for retrieval of information the routing mechanism is used. In routing mechanism there are three to four types of nodes are used, one is sink node which is deployed on the water surface and can collect the information, courier/super/AUV or dolphin powerful nodes are deployed in the middle of the water for forwarding the packets, ordinary nodes are also forwarder nodes which can be deployed from bottom to surface of the water and source nodes are deployed at the seabed which can extract the valuable information from the bottom of the sea. In underwater environment the battery power of the nodes is limited and that power can be enhanced through better selection of the routing algorithm. This paper focuses the energy-efficient routing algorithms for their routing mechanisms to prolong the battery power of the nodes. This paper also focuses the performance analysis of the energy-efficient algorithms under which we can examine the better performance of the route selection mechanism which can prolong the battery power of the node
Fuzzy based clustering and energy efficientIJCNCJournal
Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) is a particular kind of sensor networks which is
characterized by using acoustic channels for communication. UWSN is challenged by great issues specially
the energy supply of sensor node which can be wasted rapidly by several factors. The most proposed
routing protocols for terrestrial sensor networks are not adequate for UWSN, thus new design of routing
protocols must be adapted to this constrain. In this paper we propose two new clustering algorithms based
on Fuzzy C-Means mechanisms. In the first proposition, the cluster head is elected initially based on the
closeness to the center of the cluster, then the node having the higher residual energy elects itself as a
cluster head. All non-cluster head nodes transmit sensed data to the cluster head. This latter performs data
aggregation and transmits the data directly to the base station. The second algorithm uses the same
principle in forming clusters and electing cluster heads but operates in multi-hop mode to forward data
from cluster heads to the underwater sink (uw-sink). Furthermore the two proposed algorithms are tested
for static and dynamic deployment. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
algorithms resulting in an extension of the network lifetime.
ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR VOID AVOIDANCE IN UWSN USING RESIDUAL ...IJCNCJournal
Abstract. Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSN) is attracting the interest of most of the researcher because of the good opportunity to discover and catch the oceanic activities. As we know radio waves could not work efficiently in Underwater so Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASN) emerged as a most prevalent network to an outstanding range. UASN have some constraints in its deployment as well as acoustic wave communication. This limitation involves large propagation delay, transmission cost, very less bandwidth, high signal attenuation, and restricted accessibility of the nodes and non-availability of the recharging of nodes leads to the development of some energy saving algorithms to prolong the lifetime of the nodes. Routing technique must be rich enough to overcome all these constraints and give an energyefficient path by avoiding void regions and increase the network lifetime. Depth based algorithms proposed in the last decades use depth factor to estimate the path from sender to the sink. By having the holding time calculation they minimize the replication of information. Here, this per have proposed Energy Efficient Void Avoidance Routing Scheme for UWSN (E2RV) using Residual Energy and Depth Variance it used two hop node information to escape the void shacks in the network area along with this it is using regularized remaining energy and normalized depth of the nodes to estimate the path from data generating node to sink
node. In this way E2RV not only removing the void holes but also maintains the energy depletion of the network nodes and upsurge the network lifetime. Simulation results show the improvement of E2RV over previously defined algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio, duplications, less energy depletion and increased lifetime.
RMEER: Reliable Multi-path Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Underwater W...IJECEIAES
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is interesting area for researchers. To extract the information from seabed to water surface the the majority numbers of routing protocols has been introduced. The design of routing protocols faces many challenges like deployment of sensor nodes, controlling of node mobility, development of efficient route for data forwarding, prolong the battery power of the sensor nodes, and removal of void nodes from active data forwarding paths. This research article focuses the design of the Reliable Multipath Energy Efficient Routing (RMEER) which develops the efficient route between sensor nodes, and prolongs the battery life of the nodes. RMEER is a scalable and robust protocol which utilizes the powerful fixed courier nodes in order to enhance the network throughput, data delivery ratio, network lifetime and reduces the end-to-end delay. RMEER is also an energy efficient routing protocol for saving the energy level of the nodes. We have used the NS2.30 simulator with AquaSim package for performance analysis of RMEER.We observed that the simulation performance of RMEER is better than D-DBR protocol.
Geographic routing protocols for underwater wireless sensor networks a surveyijwmn
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different
challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery power, defective underwater channels, and high variable
propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is finding an efficient route between a source and a
destination. Consequently, great efforts have been made for designing efficient protocols while considering
the unique characteristics of underwater communication. Several routing protocols are proposed for this
issue and can be classified into geographic and non-geographic routing protocols. In this paper we focus
on the geographic routing protocols. We introduce a review and comparison of different algorithms
proposed recently in the literature. We also presented a novel taxonomy of these routing in which the
protocols are classified into three categories (greedy, restricted directional flooding and hierarchical)
according to their forwarding strategies.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Survey on Energy-Efficient Routing Algorithms for Underwater Wireless Sensor ...Editor IJCATR
In underwater environment, for retrieval of information the routing mechanism is used. In routing mechanism there are three to four types of nodes are used, one is sink node which is deployed on the water surface and can collect the information, courier/super/AUV or dolphin powerful nodes are deployed in the middle of the water for forwarding the packets, ordinary nodes are also forwarder nodes which can be deployed from bottom to surface of the water and source nodes are deployed at the seabed which can extract the valuable information from the bottom of the sea. In underwater environment the battery power of the nodes is limited and that power can be enhanced through better selection of the routing algorithm. This paper focuses the energy-efficient routing algorithms for their routing mechanisms to prolong the battery power of the nodes. This paper also focuses the performance analysis of the energy-efficient algorithms under which we can examine the better performance of the route selection mechanism which can prolong the battery power of the node
Fuzzy based clustering and energy efficientIJCNCJournal
Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) is a particular kind of sensor networks which is
characterized by using acoustic channels for communication. UWSN is challenged by great issues specially
the energy supply of sensor node which can be wasted rapidly by several factors. The most proposed
routing protocols for terrestrial sensor networks are not adequate for UWSN, thus new design of routing
protocols must be adapted to this constrain. In this paper we propose two new clustering algorithms based
on Fuzzy C-Means mechanisms. In the first proposition, the cluster head is elected initially based on the
closeness to the center of the cluster, then the node having the higher residual energy elects itself as a
cluster head. All non-cluster head nodes transmit sensed data to the cluster head. This latter performs data
aggregation and transmits the data directly to the base station. The second algorithm uses the same
principle in forming clusters and electing cluster heads but operates in multi-hop mode to forward data
from cluster heads to the underwater sink (uw-sink). Furthermore the two proposed algorithms are tested
for static and dynamic deployment. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
algorithms resulting in an extension of the network lifetime.
Effective Pipeline Monitoring Technology in Wireless Sensor NetworksIJTET Journal
Wireless detector nodes are a promising technology to play three-dimensional applications. Even it
will sight correct lead to could on top of ground and underground. In solid underground watching system makes
some challenges are there to propagating the signals. The detector node is moving entire the underground
pipeline and sending information to relay node that's placed within the on top of ground. If any relay node is
unsuccessful during this condition suggests that it'll not sending the info. In this watching system can specially
designed as a heterogeneous networks. Every high power relay nodes most covers minimum 2 low power relay
node. If any relay node is unsuccessful within the network, the constellation can modification mechanically
supported the heterogeneous network. The high power relay node is change the unsuccessful node and sending
the condition of pipeline. The benefits are thought-about to be extremely distributed, improved packet delivery
Engineering Research Publication
Best International Journals, High Impact Journals,
International Journal of Engineering & Technical Research
ISSN : 2321-0869 (O) 2454-4698 (P)
www.erpublication.org
The Underwater Sensor Network (UWSN) is main interesting area due to its most valuable
applications like: disaster preventions, distributed tactical surveillance, undersea exploration, seismic
monitoring, environmental monitoring and many more. The design of energy efficient routing protocol
however is a challenging issue because in underwater environment the batteries of the sensor nodes
cannot be recharged easily. Majority of the researchers have adapted the terrestrial WSN methodologies
to overcome this problem but in underwater environment the terrestrial WSN approach is not feasible due
to the acoustic signaling and water current. This research paper focuses the key limitation of the current
energy efficient routing protocols. The simulation results with comparative analysis for energy efficient
routing protocols are also presented in this research article; which helps the researchers to find the further
research gap in the field of energy efficient routing protocols.
Using Wavelength Division Multiplexing for Protection ApplicationsPower System Operation
Summary
This paper reports on an experimental investigation that
uses coarse or dense wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM, DWDM) for applications in high-speed
traveling-wave protection. This paper documents the
performance, opportunities, and pitfalls associated with
this application and outlines practical strategies for the
seamless integration of protection systems with the
latest generation of optical transport network (OTN)
technologies.
1. Introduction
Power system protection typically operates
autonomously, with communications-based schemes
historically reserved only to protect the most critical
transmission assets. Communications bandwidth and the
cost associated with providing it has for many decades
forced power system protection engineers to economize
on communications resources.
Communications-based protection scheme deployments
started with analog pilot wire, which sent current
transformer secondary signals over a span of several
kilometers. Pilot wire schemes evolved rapidly,
spanning ever-increasing distances. Power line carrier
technology, microwave links, and eventually time-
division multiplexing (TDM) channels, such as
synchronous optical network (SONET) and synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH), came next. They enabled the
deployment of full segregated digital phase differential
schemes (ANSI Device #87), as illustrated
An Adaptive Energy Efficient Reliable Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Ne...IDES Editor
A reliable routing protocol for wireless sensor
networks (WSN) should be capable of adjusting to
constantly varying network conditions while conserving
maximum power. Existing Routing protocols provide
reliability at the cost of high energy consumption. In this
paper, we propose to develop an Adaptive Energy Efficient
Reliable Routing Protocol (AEERRP) with the aim of
keeping the energy consumption low while achieving high
reliability. In our proposed protocol, the data forwarding
probability is adaptively adjusted based on the measured
loss conditions at the sink. So only for high loss rates, a node
makes use of high transmission power to arrive at the sink.
Whenever the loss rate is low, it adaptively lessens the
transmission power. Since the source rebroadcasts the data,
until the packet loss is minimized, high data reliability is
achieved. By simulation results we show that the proposed
protocol achieves high reliability while ensuring low energy
consumption and overhead.
Multiagent based multipath routing in wireless sensor networksijwmn
This paper proposes a Multiagent Based Multipath Routing (MBMR) using a set of static and mobile agents
by employing localization technique. The operation of proposed routing technique can be briefly explained
as follows. (1) Anchor nodes are deployed evenly over the network environment. (2) Unknown sensor nodes
are deployed randomly over network environment and these nodes perform localization. (3) Source node
computes the shortest route to destination node through arbitrary midpoint node and intermediate nodes.
(4) Source node generates mobile agents for partial route discovery, which traverses to destination node
through the midpoint and intermediate nodes by carrying information. (5) Mobile agents update the
destination node with carried information. (6) Destination node computes route weight factor for all the
routes discovered by mobile agents. (7) Destination node computes the node disjoint routes and it selects
routes depending on the criticalness of event for communication. The performance of the proposed scheme
is evaluated in terms of performance parameters such as localization error, network lifetime, energy
consumption, cost factor, packet delivery ratio, and latency.
Measuring the underwater received power behavior for 433 mhz radio frequency ...journalBEEI
Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) important to enhance the widely use of the application of the Internet of things (IoT) for underwater. Uses of the acoustics base of wave propagations are the best ways to establish the UWSN. But the unpracticality of the hardware due to the size and cost has limited the application of UWSN. Radio frequency (RF) wave propagation is the best way to overcome this situation. Low frequency of the RF wave is proven feasible and suitable for underwater communication. 433 MHz RF were chosen to measuring the underwater received power behavior between the transmitter node and receiver node based on different distance and depth. HC12 transceiver module was used as a transmitter and spectrum analyzer with the telescopic antenna was used as a receiver. The received power give a good reading when the transmitter note was at 0.5-meter depth with a maximum operating range within 12 meters from the receiver.
Transferring quantum information through theijngnjournal
Transmission of information in the form of qubits much faster than the speed of light is the important
aspects of quantum information theory. Quantum information processing exploits the quantum nature of
information that needs to be stored, encoded, transmit, receive and decode the information in the form of
qubits. Bosonic channels appear to be very attractive for the physical implementation of quantum
communication. This paper does the study of quantum channels and how best it can be implemented with
the existing infrastructure that is the classical communication. Multiple access to the quantum network is
the requirement where multiple users want to transmit their quantum information simultaneously without
interfering with each others.
Single Mode Optical Fiber in Rof System Using DWDMIJERA Editor
Performance analysis was carried out to find the effect of crosstalk in a WDM system. Firstly, analysis of BER
was carried out without crosstalk. Then analysis of BER with crosstalk was done. Using equation for crosstalk,
number of channels was plotted using matlab. System parameters were optimized for a particular crosstalk.
Objective of the thesis work
Performance Analysis is carried out to find the effect of crosstalk due to optical cross connect in a DWDM
system considering a WDM based optical cross connect (OXC). An analysis is carried out to find the amount of
crosstalk due to OXC. The bit error rate performance degradation due to crosstalk is evaluated for OXC
parameter and number of wavelengths per fiber. The optimum parameters such as optimum number of channels
and hops are determined.
Channel characterization and modulation schemes of ultra wideband systemsijmnct
Channel measurements are generally the basis for channel models. Strictly speaking, channel models do
not exclusively require measurements, but it is a fact that all standardized models are derived from
measurements. This licentiate paper is focused on the characterization of ultra-wideband wireless channels.
The paper presents the characterization of ultra wide band system with their benefits and drawbacks within
the telecommunication industry. Furthermore with the advantages of Ultra wideband several modulation
techniques for UWB are discussed in this paper.
Effective Pipeline Monitoring Technology in Wireless Sensor NetworksIJTET Journal
Wireless detector nodes are a promising technology to play three-dimensional applications. Even it
will sight correct lead to could on top of ground and underground. In solid underground watching system makes
some challenges are there to propagating the signals. The detector node is moving entire the underground
pipeline and sending information to relay node that's placed within the on top of ground. If any relay node is
unsuccessful during this condition suggests that it'll not sending the info. In this watching system can specially
designed as a heterogeneous networks. Every high power relay nodes most covers minimum 2 low power relay
node. If any relay node is unsuccessful within the network, the constellation can modification mechanically
supported the heterogeneous network. The high power relay node is change the unsuccessful node and sending
the condition of pipeline. The benefits are thought-about to be extremely distributed, improved packet delivery
Engineering Research Publication
Best International Journals, High Impact Journals,
International Journal of Engineering & Technical Research
ISSN : 2321-0869 (O) 2454-4698 (P)
www.erpublication.org
The Underwater Sensor Network (UWSN) is main interesting area due to its most valuable
applications like: disaster preventions, distributed tactical surveillance, undersea exploration, seismic
monitoring, environmental monitoring and many more. The design of energy efficient routing protocol
however is a challenging issue because in underwater environment the batteries of the sensor nodes
cannot be recharged easily. Majority of the researchers have adapted the terrestrial WSN methodologies
to overcome this problem but in underwater environment the terrestrial WSN approach is not feasible due
to the acoustic signaling and water current. This research paper focuses the key limitation of the current
energy efficient routing protocols. The simulation results with comparative analysis for energy efficient
routing protocols are also presented in this research article; which helps the researchers to find the further
research gap in the field of energy efficient routing protocols.
Using Wavelength Division Multiplexing for Protection ApplicationsPower System Operation
Summary
This paper reports on an experimental investigation that
uses coarse or dense wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM, DWDM) for applications in high-speed
traveling-wave protection. This paper documents the
performance, opportunities, and pitfalls associated with
this application and outlines practical strategies for the
seamless integration of protection systems with the
latest generation of optical transport network (OTN)
technologies.
1. Introduction
Power system protection typically operates
autonomously, with communications-based schemes
historically reserved only to protect the most critical
transmission assets. Communications bandwidth and the
cost associated with providing it has for many decades
forced power system protection engineers to economize
on communications resources.
Communications-based protection scheme deployments
started with analog pilot wire, which sent current
transformer secondary signals over a span of several
kilometers. Pilot wire schemes evolved rapidly,
spanning ever-increasing distances. Power line carrier
technology, microwave links, and eventually time-
division multiplexing (TDM) channels, such as
synchronous optical network (SONET) and synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH), came next. They enabled the
deployment of full segregated digital phase differential
schemes (ANSI Device #87), as illustrated
An Adaptive Energy Efficient Reliable Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Ne...IDES Editor
A reliable routing protocol for wireless sensor
networks (WSN) should be capable of adjusting to
constantly varying network conditions while conserving
maximum power. Existing Routing protocols provide
reliability at the cost of high energy consumption. In this
paper, we propose to develop an Adaptive Energy Efficient
Reliable Routing Protocol (AEERRP) with the aim of
keeping the energy consumption low while achieving high
reliability. In our proposed protocol, the data forwarding
probability is adaptively adjusted based on the measured
loss conditions at the sink. So only for high loss rates, a node
makes use of high transmission power to arrive at the sink.
Whenever the loss rate is low, it adaptively lessens the
transmission power. Since the source rebroadcasts the data,
until the packet loss is minimized, high data reliability is
achieved. By simulation results we show that the proposed
protocol achieves high reliability while ensuring low energy
consumption and overhead.
Multiagent based multipath routing in wireless sensor networksijwmn
This paper proposes a Multiagent Based Multipath Routing (MBMR) using a set of static and mobile agents
by employing localization technique. The operation of proposed routing technique can be briefly explained
as follows. (1) Anchor nodes are deployed evenly over the network environment. (2) Unknown sensor nodes
are deployed randomly over network environment and these nodes perform localization. (3) Source node
computes the shortest route to destination node through arbitrary midpoint node and intermediate nodes.
(4) Source node generates mobile agents for partial route discovery, which traverses to destination node
through the midpoint and intermediate nodes by carrying information. (5) Mobile agents update the
destination node with carried information. (6) Destination node computes route weight factor for all the
routes discovered by mobile agents. (7) Destination node computes the node disjoint routes and it selects
routes depending on the criticalness of event for communication. The performance of the proposed scheme
is evaluated in terms of performance parameters such as localization error, network lifetime, energy
consumption, cost factor, packet delivery ratio, and latency.
Measuring the underwater received power behavior for 433 mhz radio frequency ...journalBEEI
Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) important to enhance the widely use of the application of the Internet of things (IoT) for underwater. Uses of the acoustics base of wave propagations are the best ways to establish the UWSN. But the unpracticality of the hardware due to the size and cost has limited the application of UWSN. Radio frequency (RF) wave propagation is the best way to overcome this situation. Low frequency of the RF wave is proven feasible and suitable for underwater communication. 433 MHz RF were chosen to measuring the underwater received power behavior between the transmitter node and receiver node based on different distance and depth. HC12 transceiver module was used as a transmitter and spectrum analyzer with the telescopic antenna was used as a receiver. The received power give a good reading when the transmitter note was at 0.5-meter depth with a maximum operating range within 12 meters from the receiver.
Transferring quantum information through theijngnjournal
Transmission of information in the form of qubits much faster than the speed of light is the important
aspects of quantum information theory. Quantum information processing exploits the quantum nature of
information that needs to be stored, encoded, transmit, receive and decode the information in the form of
qubits. Bosonic channels appear to be very attractive for the physical implementation of quantum
communication. This paper does the study of quantum channels and how best it can be implemented with
the existing infrastructure that is the classical communication. Multiple access to the quantum network is
the requirement where multiple users want to transmit their quantum information simultaneously without
interfering with each others.
Single Mode Optical Fiber in Rof System Using DWDMIJERA Editor
Performance analysis was carried out to find the effect of crosstalk in a WDM system. Firstly, analysis of BER
was carried out without crosstalk. Then analysis of BER with crosstalk was done. Using equation for crosstalk,
number of channels was plotted using matlab. System parameters were optimized for a particular crosstalk.
Objective of the thesis work
Performance Analysis is carried out to find the effect of crosstalk due to optical cross connect in a DWDM
system considering a WDM based optical cross connect (OXC). An analysis is carried out to find the amount of
crosstalk due to OXC. The bit error rate performance degradation due to crosstalk is evaluated for OXC
parameter and number of wavelengths per fiber. The optimum parameters such as optimum number of channels
and hops are determined.
Channel characterization and modulation schemes of ultra wideband systemsijmnct
Channel measurements are generally the basis for channel models. Strictly speaking, channel models do
not exclusively require measurements, but it is a fact that all standardized models are derived from
measurements. This licentiate paper is focused on the characterization of ultra-wideband wireless channels.
The paper presents the characterization of ultra wide band system with their benefits and drawbacks within
the telecommunication industry. Furthermore with the advantages of Ultra wideband several modulation
techniques for UWB are discussed in this paper.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
An energy aware scheme for layered chain in underwater wireless sensor networ...IJECEIAES
Extending the network lifetime is a very challenging problem that needs to be taken into account during routing data in wireless sensor networks in general and particularly in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN). For this purpose, the present paper proposes a multilayer chain based on genetic algorithm routing (MCGA) for routing data from nodes to the sink. This algorithm consists to create a limited number of local chains constructed by using genetic algorithm in order to obtain the shortest path between nodes; furthermore, a leader node (LN) is elected in each chain followed by constructing a global chain containing LNs. The selection of the LN in the closest chain to the sink is as follows: Initially, the closest node to sink is elected LN in this latter because all nodes have initially the same energy value; then the future selection of the LN is based on the residual energy of the nodes. LNs in the other chains are selected based on the proximity to the previous LNs. Data transmission is performed in two steps: intra-chain transmission and inter-chain transmission. Furthermore, MCGA is simulated for different scenarios of mobility and density of nodes in the networks. The performance evaluation of the proposed technique shows a considerable reduction in terms of energy consumption and network lifespan.
Analysis of CODBR and CEEDBR Protocols in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networksbijcicnjounal
UWSNs (underwater wireless sensor networks) are essential for doing any type of task underwater. Huge broadcast lag, great error degree, small bandwidth, and restricted energy in Underwater Sensor Networks interest concentration of utmost investigators. In UWSNs, the efficient use of energy is one of the main problems, as the substitution of energy sources in this kind of location is extremely costly. UWSNs are utilized in many fields, like measuring pollution, issuing tsunami cautions, conducting offshore surveys, and strategic tracing. For numerous functions, the efficacy and dependability of network regarding prominent operation, energy preservation, small bit error rate, and decreased interruption are fundamental. Nevertheless, UWSN’s exclusive features like small bandwidth accessibility, large interruptions in broadcast, very vivacious network topology, and extreme possibility of error present numerous problems in the growth of effective and dependable communication procedures. As opposed to current deepness-based routing techniques, we are focusing on CoDBR (Cooperative Depth-based Routing) and CEEDBR (Cooperative Energy Efficient Depth-based Routing) procedures to improve network lifespan, energy efficacy, and amount.
Analysis of CoDBR and CEEDBR protocols in underwater wireless sensor networksbijcicnjournal
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) are essential for doing any type of task underwater. Huge broadcast lag, great error degree, small bandwidth, and restricted energy in Underwater Sensor Networks interest concentration of utmost investigators. In UWSNs, the efficient use of energy is one of the main problems, as the substitution of energy sources in this kind of location is extremely costly. UWSNs are utilized in many fields, like measuring pollution, issuing tsunami cautions, conducting offshore surveys, and strategic tracing. For numerous functions, the efficacy and dependability of network regarding prominent operation, energy preservation, small bit error rate, and decreased interruption are fundamental. Nevertheless, UWSN’s exclusive features like small bandwidth accessibility, large interruptions in broadcast, very vivacious network topology, and extreme possibility of error present numerous problems in the growth of effective and dependable communication procedures. As opposed to current deepness-based routing techniques, we are focusing on CoDBR (Cooperative Depthbased Routing) and CEEDBR (Cooperative Energy Efficient Depth-based Routing) procedures to improve network lifespan, energy efficacy, and amount.
LBRP: A RESILIENT ENERGY HARVESTING NOISE AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR UNDER WA...ijfcstjournal
Underwater detector network is one amongst the foremost difficult and fascinating analysis arenas that open the door of pleasing plenty of researchers during this field of study. In several under water based
sensor applications, nodes are square measured and through this the energy is affected. Thus, the mobility of each sensor nodes are measured through the water atmosphere from the water flow for sensor based protocol formations. Researchers have developed many routing protocols. However, those lost their charm with the time. This can be the demand of the age to supply associate degree upon energy-efficient and ascendable strong routing protocol for under water actuator networks. During this work, the authors tend to propose a customary routing protocol named level primarily based routing protocol (LBRP), reaching to offer strong, ascendable and energy economical routing. LBRP conjointly guarantees the most effective use of total energy consumption and ensures packet transmission which redirects as an additional reliability in compare to different routing protocols. In this work, the authors have used the level of forwarding node, residual energy and distance from the forwarding node to the causing node as a proof in multicasting technique comparisons. Throughout this work, the authors have got a recognition result concerning about
86.35% on the average in node multicasting performances. Simulation has been experienced each in a wheezy and quiet atmosphere which represents the endorsement of higher performance for the planned protocol.
LBRP: A RESILIENT ENERGY HARVESTING NOISE AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR UNDER WA...ijfcstjournal
Underwater detector network is one amongst the foremost difficult and fascinating analysis arenas that
open the door of pleasing plenty of researchers during this field of study. In several under water based
sensor applications, nodes are square measured and through this the energy is affected. Thus, the mobility
of each sensor nodes are measured through the water atmosphere from the water flow for sensor based
protocol formations. Researchers have developed many routing protocols. However, those lost their charm
with the time. This can be the demand of the age to supply associate degree upon energy-efficient and
ascendable strong routing protocol for under water actuator networks. During this work, the authors tend
to propose a customary routing protocol named level primarily based routing protocol (LBRP), reaching to
offer strong, ascendable and energy economical routing. LBRP conjointly guarantees the most effective use
of total energy consumption and ensures packet transmission which redirects as an additional reliability in
compare to different routing protocols. In this work, the authors have used the level of forwarding node,
residual energy and distance from the forwarding node to the causing node as a proof in multicasting
technique comparisons. Throughout this work, the authors have got a recognition result concerning about
86.35% on the average in node multicasting performances. Simulation has been experienced each in a
wheezy and quiet atmosphere which represents the endorsement of higher performance for the planned
protocol.
LBRP: A RESILIENT ENERGY HARVESTING NOISE AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR UNDER WA...ijfcstjournal
Underwater detector network is one amongst the foremost difficult and fascinating analysis arenas that open the door of pleasing plenty of researchers during this field of study. In several under water based sensor applications, nodes are square measured and through this the energy is affected. Thus, the mobility of each sensor nodes are measured through the water atmosphere from the water flow for sensor based protocol formations. Researchers have developed many routing protocols. However, those lost their charm with the time. This can be the demand of the age to supply associate degree upon energy-efficient and ascendable strong routing protocol for under water actuator networks. During this work, the authors tend to propose a customary routing protocol named level primarily based routing protocol (LBRP), reaching to offer strong, ascendable and energy economical routing. LBRP conjointly guarantees the most effective use of total energy consumption and ensures packet transmission which redirects as an additional reliability in compare to different routing protocols. In this work, the authors have used the level of forwarding node, residual energy and distance from the forwarding node to the causing node as a proof in multicasting technique comparisons. Throughout this work, the authors have got a recognition result concerning about 86.35% on the average in node multicasting performances. Simulation has been experienced each in a wheezy and quiet atmosphere which represents the endorsement of higher performance for the planned protocol.
Horizontal trajectory based mobile multi-sink routing in underwater sensor ne...IJECEIAES
Scientific, commercial, exploration, and monitoring applications of underwater sensor networks have drawn the attention of researchers toward the investigation of routing protocols that are robust, scalable, and energy efficient. This has brought significant research in network layer routing protocols. Irrespective of the field of application it is desirable to increase network lifetime by reducing energy consumed by sensor nodes in the network or by balancing energy in the entire network. Energy balancing refers to the uniform distribution of the network’s residual energy such that all nodes remain alive for a long time. It requires uniform energy consumption by each sensor node in the network instead of the same node being involved in every transmission. In this paper, we discuss two routing methods for three-dimensional environments in which the water region under monitor is divided into subregions of equal height and each subregion has a sink. Nodes in the subregion send data to the sink designated for that subregion. The first method called static multi-sink routing uses static sinks and the second method called horizontal trajectory-based mobile multi-sink routing (HT-MMR) uses mobile sinks with a horizontal trajectory. Simulation results show that the proposed HT-MMR reduces average energy consumption and average energy tax by 16.69% and 16.44% respectively. HT-MMR is energy efficient as it enhances network lifetime by 11.11%.
Priority based energy efficient hybrid cluster routing protocol for underwate...IJECEIAES
A little change in the environment that goes unnoticed in an underwater communication network might lead to calamity. A little alteration in the environment must also be adequately analyzed in order to deal with a potential crisis. A priority-based routing protocol is required to ensure that the vital data perceived by the sensor about the environment changes. The priority-based routing system guarantees that vital data packets are delivered at a quicker pace to the destination or base station for further processing. In this work, we present a priority-based routing protocol based on the energy efficient hybrid cluster routing protocol (EEHRCP) algorithm. The suggested approach keeps two distinct queues for lower and higher priority data packets. In order to ensure that these packets get at their destination without any information loss and at a quicker rate, all of the crucial sensed data is passed through a higher priority queue. Test findings show that the suggested technique increases throughput, delivery percentage, and reduces latency for the crucial data packets.
Grid Based Priority Routing Protocol for UWSNsIJCNCJournal
In this paper, we devise and evaluate a new Grid-Based Priority Routing (GBPR) protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). GBPR utilizes a 3D logical grid view of the monitored area to deliver
data packets to sink nodes. Particularly, data packets are forwarded on a cell-by-cell-basis using elected sensor nodes called cell-heads. The unique feature in GBPR is the lassification of the neighboring cells in
different priority levels according to their distances to the sink node. Cells closer to the sink are given higher priority to be selected as the next hop. This mechanism helps in reducing the number of hops; thus, reducing the energy consumption and end-to-end delay, and increasing the reliability. The protocol is
evaluated and compared against EMGGR and EEF protocols available in the literature. Simulation results show that GBPR outperforms the other two protocols in terms of energy efficiency, average delay and packet delivery ratio.
GRID-BASED PRIORITY ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR UWSNSIJCNCJournal
In this paper, we devise and evaluate a new Grid-Based Priority Routing (GBPR) protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). GBPR utilizes a 3D logical grid view of the monitored area to deliver data packets to sink nodes. Particularly, data packets are forwarded on a cell-by-cell-basis using elected
sensor nodes called cell-heads. The unique feature in GBPR is the classification of the neighboring cells in different priority levels according to their distances to the sink node. Cells closer to the sink are given higher priority to be selected as the next hop. This mechanism helps in reducing the number of hops; thus, reducing the energy consumption and end-to-end delay, and increasing the reliability. The protocol is evaluated and compared against EMGGR and EEF protocols available in the literature. Simulation results show that GBPR outperforms the other two protocols in terms of energy efficiency, average delay and
packet delivery ratio.
A Review on Architecture, Issues, Challenges and Applications in Underwater W...ijtsrd
Underwater Wireless Sensor Network UWSN is an emerging technique for various underwater applications such as marine climate observation, pollution tracking, disaster prevention, underwater surveillance etc. And, each of these applications require Sensor Nodes SNs to effectively provide accurate sensed data. A node must know its own location before sending data to its neighbour. The need for location arises because the number of nodes is very large and it is not possible for the base station to nd the nodes' positions, so the individual node is required to send location information along with the observed data to provide exact location to the user, which means the node must localize itself. However, due to the complex environment, it is very challenging to transmit the collected data to the base station on the surface quickly and effectively. An energy ef cient routing protocol plays a vital role in data transmission. However, due to the speci c characteristics of UWSNs, such as dynamic structure, narrow bandwidth, rapid energy consumption, and high latency, it is dif cult to build routing protocols for UWSNs. In this article, we focus on surveying architecture, challenges, opportunities as well as various applications in UWSN. Gaurav Rai | Ravi Kumar Malik "A Review on Architecture, Issues, Challenges and Applications in Underwater Wireless Sensor Network" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-6 , October 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd18634.pdf
SINK RELOCATION FOR NETWORK LIFETIME ENHANCEMENT METHOD IN WSNEditor IJMTER
Recent advances in micro manufacturing technology have enabled the event of cheap, normal
power, unique functional detector nodes for the wireless communication. Sensing applications have
normal conjointly as a reality of result. These embrace environmental observation, intrusion detection,
battleground police work, and so on. In a very wireless detector network (WSN), the way the restricted
power resources of sensors to increase that to conserve the network lifespan of the WSN as long as double
whereas activity the sensing and detected knowledge news tasks, is that the most important issue within
the network style. In a WSN, detector nodes deliver detected knowledge back to the sink as multi hopping.
The detector nodes are very close to the sink can usually consume additional battery power than others;
consequently, these nodes will been drain out their battery energy quickly and short the network lifespan
of the WSN. Sink relocation have associate degree economical network lifespan extension methodology,
that could avoids an excessive amount of battery energy for a selected cluster of detector nodes. during
this paper, we have a tendency to propose a moving strategy known as energy-aware sink relocation
(EASR) for mobile sinks in WSN. These projected mechanism uses info associated with the residual
battery energy of detector nodes to be adaptively alter the transmission vary of detector nodes and
therefore the relocating theme to the sink. Some theoretical and numerical analyze area unit given to point
out that the EASR methodology will extend the network lifespan of the WSN considerably
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A Review Study on Shortest Path in WSN to detect the Abnormal Packet for savi...Editor IJMTER
The main motive of this research is to study energy-efficient data-gathering mechanisms to
abnormal packet data for saving the energy. To detect the abnormal packet irregularities is useful for
saving energy, as well as for management of network, because the patterns found can be used for
both decision making in applications and system performance tuning. Node distribution in WSNs is
either deterministic or self-organizing and application dependant. The sensor nodes in WSNs have
minimum energy and they use their energy for communication and sensing.
A Review Study on Shortest Path in WSN to detect the Abnormal Packet for savi...
Fs2410401044
1. Heena Ahuja, Er. Jyoti Gupta / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.1040-1044
Review of Vector-Based Forwarding Protocol for Underwater Sensor
Network
Heena Ahuja*, Er. Jyoti Gupta**
*Student, Department of ECE, MMU Mullana, Ambala, India
** Assistant Professor, ECE, MMU Mullana, Ambala, India
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we tackle one fundamental latency, node mobility (resulting in high network
problem in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs): dynamics), high error probability, and three-dimensional
robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. network topology. These new features bring many
Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are challenges to the protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper,
significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks we tackle one fundamental problem in UWSNs: robust,
in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high latency, scalable, and energy efficient routing. The unique features
node mobility, high error probability, and 3- of UWSNs pose great challenges on its routing protocol
dimensional space. These new features bring many design and make many existing routing protocols for
challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. terrestrial networks unsuitable.
In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol,
called vector-based forwarding (VBF), to provide
robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. VBF is 1.1 Unique Features of UWSNs
essentially a position-based routing approach: nodes UWSNs are significantly different from any terrestrial
close to the “vector" from the source to the destination sensor networks in terms of the following aspects:
will forward the message. In this way, only a small
fraction of the nodes are involved in routing. To 1.1.1 Low Bandwidth and High Latency in UWSNs:
improve the robustness, packets are forwarded in Acoustic channels (instead of RF channels) are used as the
redundant and interleaved paths. Further, a localized communication method since radio does not work well in
and distributed self-adaptation algorithm allows the water. The propagation speed of acoustic signals in water
nodes to reduce energy consumption by discarding is about 1.5 × 103 m/sec, which is five orders of magnitude
redundant packets.VBF performs well in dense lower than the radio propagation speed (3 × 108 m/sec).
networks. Moreover, the available bandwidth of underwater acoustic
channels is limited and dramatically depends on both
Keywords - Angle of arrival, energy, desirable factor, transmission range and frequency.
packets, protocol, self adaptation, vector.
1.1.2 UWSNs Are Highly Dynamic: The underwater
1. INTRODUCTION sensor networks we target are highly mobile networks
The Earth is a water planet. For decades, there where sensor nodes are not fixed and they will float with
have been significant interests in monitoring aquatic water currents. From empirical observations, underwater
environments for scientific exploration, commercial objects may move at the speed of 2-3 knots (or 3–6
exploitation and coastline protection. Highly precise, real- kilometers per hour) in a typical underwater condition.
time, and temporal spatial continuous aquatic environment This kind of mobility results in a highly dynamic network
monitoring systems are extremely important for various topology.
applications, such as oceanographic data collection,
pollution detection, and marine surveillance. However, 1.1.3 UWSNs Are Highly Error-Prone: Underwater
traditional techniques, such as remote telemetry and acoustic communication channels are significantly
sequential local sensing, cannot satisfy these high- affected by many factors such as signal attenuation, noise,
demanding application requirements. Recently, underwater multipath, Doppler spread, and even water temperature.
sensor networks have emerged as a very powerful All these factors cause high bit-error and delay variance.
technique for many applications for underwater Thus, communication links in UWSNs are highly error-
environment, including monitoring, measurement, prone.
surveillance and control [1].Compared with traditional
techniques in these application scenarios, underwater 1.1.4 UWSNs Are Three-Dimensional: UWSNs are
sensor networks enable people to perform underwater usually deployed in a three-dimensional space. This is
activities more accurately and timely in much wider areas. different from the 2-dimensional deployment of most
Even though underwater sensor networks terrestrial sensor networks. These characteristics of
(UWSNs) share some common properties with terrestrial UWSNs bring up many new challenges and make the
sensor networks, such as the large number of nodes and existing routing protocols for terrestrial sensor networks
the limited energy supplies, UWSNs are significantly unsuitable here. For UWSNs, the routing protocols should
different from terrestrial sensor networks in many aspects: be able to handle the node mobility and the unreliable
low bandwidth, high communication links with high energy efficiency.
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2. Heena Ahuja, Er. Jyoti Gupta / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.1040-1044
1.2 Routing Challenges in UWSNs relatively stable neighborhood to form the routing path. If
Same as in terrestrial sensor networks, saving energy is a applying these protocols in UWSNs, it would be costly to
major concern in UWSNs. At the same time, UWSN maintain and recover the frequently broken routing path
routing should be able to handle node mobility. This due to the node mobility. Geographic routing protocols,
requirement makes most existing energy-efficient routing which leverage the position information of each node to
protocols unsuitable for UWSNs. There are many routing determine the forwarding path, have been investigated
protocols proposed for terrestrial sensor networks, such as extensively for terrestrial wireless networks.
Directed Diffusion [2], and TTDD (Two-Tier Data
Dissemination) [3]. These protocols are mainly designed 2.2 Routing in Underwater Networks
for stationary networks. They usually employ query Much research work has been done in the last few years on
flooding as a powerful method to discover data delivery the routing protocols for underwater networks. The
paths. In UWSNs, however, most sensor nodes are mobile, challenges and state-of-art for the routing protocols in
and the “network topology” changes very rapidly even underwater networks have been discussed in detail in [9].
with small displacements. The frequent maintenance and A pioneering work is done in on the routing protocol for
recovery of forwarding paths is very expensive in high underwater networks. In this work, a central master node
dynamic networks, and even more expensive in dense 3- is used to probe the network topology and do the route
dimensional UWSNs. Thus, to provide scalable and establishment. The authors of [10] propose a centralized
efficient routing in UWSNs, we have to seek for new routing algorithm for delay sensitive application and a
solutions. In this paper, we investigate this challenging distributed routing algorithm for delay insensitive
routing problem in UWSNs, with scalability and energy applications in three-dimensional underwater networks. In
efficiency as the design objectives. Moreover, robustness [11], the authors propose a novel method to improve the
is also an important concern due to the high node failure efficiency of the flood-based routing protocol in
rate and error-prone channels in UWSNs. underwater sensor networks. An adaptive routing protocol
for under-water Delay Tolerant Networks (DTN) has been
1.2 Contributions proposed in [12], which divides the network into multiple
In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol, called layers and every node adaptively finds its routes to the
vector-based forwarding (VBF), to address the routing upper layer according to its past memory. Different from
problem in UWSNs. VBF is robust, scalable and energy all the above work, our VBF takes advantages of the
efficient. It is essentially a location-based routing location information to form one or multiple routing pipes
approach. No state information is required on the sensor from the source to the destination. Multiple routes might
nodes and only a small fraction of the nodes are involved be used simultaneously in VBF to improve the reliability.
in routing. Moreover, in VBF, packets are forwarded along At the same time, the self-adaption algorithm in VBF can
redundant and interleaved paths from a source to a greatly improve the energy efficiency. Thus, our VBF can
destination, thus VBF is robust against packet loss and achieve a good balance between the reliability and energy
node failure. Further, we develop a localized and efficiency. In short, the routing protocols for UWSNs have
distributed self-adaptation algorithm to enhance the to address the node mobility issue at minimum energy
performance of VBF. The self-adaptation algorithm allows expenditure. However, existing routing protocols designed
nodes to weigh the benefit of for- warding packets and for land-based sensor networks can not satisfy this
thus reduce energy consumption by discarding low benefit requirement. When applied directly in the underwater
packets. We evaluate the performance of VBF through sensor network environment, these proposals become very
extensive simulations. Our experiment results show that expensive in terms of energy due to node mobility.
for networks with small or medium node mobility (1 m/s-3
m/s), VBF can effectively achieve the goals of robustness, 3 VECTOR BASED FORWARDING
energy efficiency, and high success of data delivery. PROTOCOL (VBF)
the introduction of the paper should explain the nature of In this section, we present our vector-based
the problem, previous work, purpose, and the contribution forwarding (VBF) protocol in detail.
of the paper. The contents of each section may be provided
to understand easily about the paper. 3.1 Overview of VBF
In sensor networks, energy constraint is a crucial factor
2 RELATED WORK since sensor nodes usually run on battery, and it is
In this section, we will review related work in impossible or difficult to recharge them in most
both terrestrial networks and underwater networks. application scenarios. In underwater sensor networks, in
addition to energy saving, the routing algorithms should be
2.1 Routing in Terrestrial Wireless Networks able to handle node mobility in an efficient way.
Energy efficiency has long been recognized as one of the
most important properties for terrestrial wireless networks.
Many energy efficient routing protocols such as Directed
Diffusion [4], Two-Tier Data Dissemination [5],
GRAdient [6], Rumor routing [7], and SPIN [8], which
aim for high energy efficiency, have been proposed in the
last few years for terrestrial wireless networks. These
protocols can achieve high energy efficiency in the
terrestrial networks. However, they depend on the
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3. Heena Ahuja, Er. Jyoti Gupta / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.1040-1044
field. The forwarding path is specified by the routing
vector from the sender to the target. Each packet also has a
RADIUS field, which is a pre-defined threshold used by
sensor nodes to determine if they are close enough to the
routing vector and eligible for packet forwarding. There
are two types of queries. One is location-dependent query.
In this case, the sink is interested in some specific area and
knows the location of the area. The other type is location
independent query, when the sink wants to know some
specific type of data regardless of its location. For
example, the sink wants to know if there exist abnormal
high temperatures in the network. Both of these two types
of queries can be routed effectively by VBF.
Fig. 1: A high level view of VBF for UWSNs. I) Query Forwarding: For location dependent queries,
the sink is interested in some specific area, so it issues an
Vector-Based Forwarding (VBF) protocol meets INTEREST query packet, which carries the coordinates of
these requirements successfully. We assume that each the sink and the target in the sink-based coordinate system,
node in VBF knows its position information, which is i.e., it has the information of SP and TP. This query is then
provided by some location algorithms [13]. If there is no directed to the targeted area following the pipe defined by
such localization service available, a sensor node can still SP and TP. For a location-independent query, the TP field
estimate its relative position to the forwarding node by of the INTEREST packet is invalid, and this query will be
measuring its distance to the forwarder and the angle of flooded to the target nodes. Upon receiving such query,
arrival (AOA) and strength of the signal by being armed the intended nodes can compute their locations in the sink-
with some hardware device. In this work, we assume that based coordinate system and then direct the subsequent
the position information can be calculated by measuring data packets to the sink.
the AOA and strength of the signal. In VBF, each packet
carries the positions of the sender, the target, and the II) Source-Initiated Query: In some application
forwarder (i.e., the node which transmits this packet). The scenarios, the source can initiate the query process. VBF
forwarding path is specified by the routing vector from the also supports such source initiated query. If a source
sender to the target. Upon receiving a packet, a node senses some events and wants to inform the sink, it first
computes its relative position to the forwarder. broadcasts a DATA READY packet. Upon receiving such
Recursively, all the nodes receiving the packet compute packets, each node computes its own position in the
their positions. If a node determines that it is sufficiently source-based coordinate system, updates the FP field, and
close to the routing vector (e.g., less than a predefined forwards the packet. Once the sink receives this packet, it
distance threshold), it puts its own computed position in calculates its position in the source-based coordinate
the packet and continues forwarding the packet; otherwise, system and transforms the position of the source into its
it simply discards the packet. In this way, all the packet own coordinate system. Then the sink can decide if it is
forwarders in the sensor network form a “routing pipe”. interested in such data. If so, it may send out an
The sensor nodes in this pipe are eligible for packet INTEREST packet to the area where the source resides.
forwarding, and those which are not close to the routing
vector (i.e., the axis of the pipe) do not forward. Fig.1 3.3 Handling Source Mobility
illustrates the basic idea of VBF. In the above figure, node Since the source node keeps moving, its location
S1 is the source, and node S0 is the sink. The routing vector calculated based on the old INTEREST packet might not
is specified by S1S0. Data packets are forwarded from S1 to be accurate any more. If no measure is taken to correct the
S0. Forwarders along the routing vector form a routing source location, the actual forwarding path might get far
pipe with a pre controlled radius (i.e., the distance away from the expected one; that is, the destination of the
threshold, denoted by W in this paper).As we can see, like data forwarding path most probably misses the sink. We
all other source routing protocols, VBF requires no state propose the following sink-assisted approach to solve this
information at each node. Therefore, it is scalable to the problem. The source keeps sending packets to the sink,
size of the network. Moreover, in VBF, only the nodes and the sink can utilize the source location information
along the forwarding path (specified by the routing vector) carried in the packets to determine if the source moves out
are involved in packet routing, thus saving the energy of of the targeted scope. For example, if the sink calculates
the network. its position as Pc = (xc, yc, zc) based on the coordinates of
the source, Psource = (xsource, ysource, zsource), and its real
3.2 The Basic VBF Protocol position is P = (x, y, z), then the sink can calculate the
VBF is a source routing protocol. Each packet relative position of the sink to the source as (δx, δy , δz) =
carries simple routing information. In a packet, there are (xc -xsource, yc - ysource, zc - zsource).Therefore, the real
three position fields, SP, TP and FP, i.e., the coordinates of position of the source is P’csource = (x - δx, y - δy , z - δz). By
the sender, the target and the forwarder. In order to handle comparing Psource and P’source, the sink can decide if the
node mobility, each packet contains a RANGE field. source moves out of the scope of the interested area. If so,
When a packet reaches the area specified by its TP, this the sink sends the SOURCE DENY packet to the source
packet is flooded in an area controlled by the RANGE
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4. Heena Ahuja, Er. Jyoti Gupta / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.1040-1044
using P’source. Once the source gets such packets, it stops Fig. 2: Desirableness Factor
sending data. At the same time, the sink initia The Algorithm we propose a self-adaptation algorithm
3.4 The Self-Adaptation Algorithm based on the concept of desirableness factor. This
In the basic VBF protocol, all the nodes close enough to algorithm aims to select the most desirable nodes as
the routing vector are qualified to forward packets. The forwarders. In this algorithm, when a node receives a
protocol is simple and introduces little computation packet, it first determines if it is close enough to the
overhead. However, when sensor nodes are densely routing vector. If yes, the node then holds the packet for a
deployed, VBF may involve too many nodes in data time period related to its desirableness factor. In other
forwarding, which in turn increases the energy words, each qualified node delays forwarding the packet
consumption. Thus, it is desirable to adjust the forwarding by a time interval T adaptation, which is calculated as
policy based on the node density. Due to the mobility of follows:
the nodes in the network, it is infeasible to determine the Tadaptation =p × Tdelay + R – d/v0 , (2)
global node density. On the other hand, it is inappropriate Where Tdelay is a pre-defined maximum delay, v0 is the
to measure the density at the transmission ends (i.e., the propagation speed of acoustic signals in water, i.e.,
sender and the target) because of the low propagation 1500m/s, and d is the distance between this node and the
speed of acoustic signals. We propose a self-adaptation forwarder. In the equation, the first term reflects the
algorithm for VBF to allow each node to estimate the waiting time based on the node’s desirableness factor: the
density in its neighborhood (based on local information) more desirable (i.e., the smaller the desirableness factor),
and forward packets adaptively. the less time to wait. The second term represents the
additional time needed for all the nodes in the forwarder’s
3.4.1 Desirableness Factor: transmission range to receive the acoustic signal from the
We introduce the notion of desirableness factor to measure forwarder. During the delayed time period T adaptation, if a
the “suitableness” of a node to forward packets. node receives duplicate packets from n other nodes, then
Definition 1: Given a routing vector S1S0, where S1 is the this node has to compute its desirableness factors relative
source and S0 is the sink, for forwarder F, the to these nodes, a1, . .. ,an, and the original forwarder, a0. If
desirableness factor, a, of a node A, is defined as min (a0, a1, . . . , an) < ac/2n, where c is a pre-defined initial
a=p/W + (R−d×cosθ)/R, (1) value of desirableness factor (0< c <3), then this node
where p is the projection of A to the routing vector S 1S0, d forwards the packet; otherwise, it discards the packet.
is the distance between node A and node F, and is the From Equation 2, we can see that the optimal node does
angle between vector FS0 and vector FA . R is the not defer forwarding packets in the self-adaptation
transmission range and W is the radius of the “routing algorithm. Thus, we have the following lemma.
pipe” (i.e., the distance threshold).Fig- 2 depict the various Lemma 1: If there exists an optimal path from the sender
parameters used in the definition of desirableness factor. to the target, i.e., each node in the path is the optimal node
From the definition, we see that for any node close enough for its upstream node, then the self-adaptation algorithm
to the routing vector, i.e., 0 < p < W, the desirableness selects this path and entails no delay.
factor of this node is in the range of [0, 3].
For a node, if its desirableness factor is large, it means that
either its projection to the routing vector is large or it is not
far away from the forwarder. In other words, it is not
desirable for this node to continue forwarding the packet.
On the other hand, if the desirableness factor of a node is
0, then this node is on both the routing vector and the edge
of the transmission range of the forwarder. We call this
node as the optimal node, and its position as the best
position. For any forwarder, there is at most one optimal
node and one best position. If the desirableness factor of a
node is close to 0, it means this node is close to the best
position.tes a new INTEREST query and finds a new
source. Fig. 3: VBF with self adaptation
An Example we illustrate VBF with self-adaptation in Fig.
3. In this figure, the forwarding path is specified as the
routing vector S1S0 from the source S1 to the sink S0. The
node F is the current forwarder. There are three nodes
namely, A, B and D in its transmission range. Node A has
the smallest desirableness factor among these nodes.
Therefore, A has the shortest delay time and sends out the
packet first. As shown in this figure, node B is most likely
to discard the packet because it is in the transmission range
of A and it has to re-evaluate the benefit to send the
packet. Node D is out of the transmission range of A;
therefore, it also forwards the packet.
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5. Heena Ahuja, Er. Jyoti Gupta / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.1040-1044
[3] C. Intanagonwiwat, R.Govindan, and D.Estrin.
4. SUMMARY Directed Diffusion: A Scalable and Roust
We have described the basic VBF routing Communication Paradigm for Sensor Networks. In
protocol and the self-adaptation algorithm. We can see that ACM International Conference on Mobile Computing
VBF addresses the mobility of nodes in the network and Networking (MOBICOM’00), Boston,
effectively. The positioning of nodes is performed locally Massachusetts, USA, August 2000.
[4] C. Intanagonwiwat, R.Govindan, and D. Estrin,
and no global synchronization required. VBF has no
“Directed diffusion: a scalable and roust
requirement for stable forward path. VBF is an energy
communication paradigm for sensor networks,” in
efficient and scalable protocol. 1) In VBF, no state Proceedings of the 6th Annual International
information is required for each node; therefore, it is Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking
scalable to the size of the network; 2) In VBF, only the (MOBICOM ’00), Boston, Mass, USA, August 2000.
nodes close to the routing vector are involved in packet [5] F. Ye, H. Luo, J. Cheng, S. Lu, and L. Zhang, “A two-
forwarding, and all other nodes are in idle state, thus tier data dissemination model for large-scale wireless
saving energy. The self-adaptation algorithm helps to sensor networks,” in Proceedings of the 8th Annual
further reduce energy consumption by selecting more International Conference on Mobile Computing and
desirable nodes.VBF is also robust and less Networking (MOBICOM ’02), Atlanta, Ga, USA,
computationally demanding. 1) The success of data September 2002.
delivery is not dependent on the stable neighborhood, but [6] F. Ye, G. Zhong, S. Lu, and L. Zhang, “GRAdient
on the node density. If there exists at least one path in the broadcast: a robust data delivery protocol for large
“routing pipe” specified by the routing vector, then the scale sensor networks,” ACM Wireless Networks, vol.
packet can be successfully delivered; 2) The computation 11, no. 3, pp. 285–298, 2005.
demand on each node is appropriate for routing on- [7] D. Braginsky and D. Estrin, “Rumor routing algorithm
demand since only simple vector-related calculation is for sensor networks,” in Proceedings of the ACM
needed. International Workshop on Wireless Sensor Networks
and Applications(WSNA ’02), pp. 22–31, Atlanta, Ga,
USA, September 2002.
5. CONCLUSION [8] W. R. Heinzelman, J. Kulik, and H. Balakrishnan,
In this paper, we have proposed a vector-based “Adaptive protocols for information dissemination in
forwarding (VBF) protocol to address the routing wireless sensor networks,” in Proceedings of the 5th
challenges in UWSNs. VBF is scalable, robust and energy Annual ACM/IEEE International Conference
efficient: 1) Packets carry routing related information and onMobile Computing and Networking (MOBICOM
no state information is required at nodes. Thus, it is ’99), Seattle,Wash, USA, August 1999.
scalable in terms of network size; 2) In VBF, only those [9] J. Heidemann, W. Ye, J. Wills, A. Syed, and Y. Li,
nodes close to the routing vector are involved in data “Research challenges and applications for underwater
forwarding. Therefore, it is energy efficient. Moreover, sensor networking,” in Proceedongs of the IEEE
our self-adaptation algorithm allows a node to estimate its Wireless Communications and Networking Conference
importance in its neighbourhood and thus adjust its (WCNC ’06), vol. 1, pp. 228–235, Las Vegas, Nev,
forwarding policy to save more energy; 3) VBF utilizes USA, April 2006.
path redundancy (controlled by the routing pipe radius) to [10] D. Pompili and T. Melodia, “Three-dimenisional routing
provide robustness against packet loss and node failure. in underwater acoustic sensor networks,” in
Our simulation results have demonstrated the promising Proceedings of the 2nd ACM International Workshop
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Sensor, and Ubiquitous Networks (WASUN ’05), pp.
214–221, Montreal, Calif, USA, October 2005.
6. FUTURE WORK [11] A. Goel, A. G. Kannan, I. Katz, and R. Bartos,
There are several directions in UWSNs worth “Improving efficiency of a flooding-based routing
future investigation. 1) In the VBF simulations, we use a protocol for underwater networks,” in Proceedings of
simple MAC protocol as the underlying link layer the 3rd ACM International Workshop on Underwater
protocol. This is not a satisfactory choice. Designing an Networks, pp. 91–94, San Francisco, Calif, USA,
efficient MAC protocol for underwater sensor networks is September 2008.
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reliable data transfer and congestion control problems, Maggiorinit, and G. P. Rossi, “Adaptive routing in
which are very challenging due to the unique features of underwater delay/disruption tolerant sensor networks,”
UWSNs: high end-to-end delay, low bandwidth, and high in Proceedings of the 5th IEEE Annual Conference on
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