Freud sought to explain the psyche by comparing it to a scientific apparatus used to explore the external world. The psychic apparatus differs in that it is used to explore both the internal and external worlds. Freud described the psyche using three models: the topographical model concerning consciousness and the unconscious, the structural model comprising the id, ego and superego, and the economic model regarding psychic energy and tension. Understanding the interaction between these three models is key to comprehending Freud's theory of the psychic apparatus and how neuroses develop when one is unable to reconcile the inner and outer worlds.
Classificatory systems - Advantages & DisadvantagesHemangi Narvekar
Classification of Diseases/Disorders are important to improve treatment and prevention efforts. Two important classification system used in the field of Mental Disorders are DSM -V and ICD -10. Here we will discuss Strengths and Weaknesses of both.
Culture bound syndrome, culture related specific disorders, culture specific disorders/ syndromes, exotic psychiatric syndromes or Rare atypical unclassifiable disorders.
Will talk about the severe psychological disorders-- The familiar name for all might be -"Schizophrenia" - it is not just one category but has multiple categories combined under -"Schizophrenia spectrum"
My forensic psychiatric research done in Indian jails shows most convicts under murder cases belong to schizophrenia spectrum (98% schizophrenia and 2% paranoid & schizoid personality disorders), and most have murdered their spouses, family members, friends or colleagues and surrendered themselves on the spot.
This presentation on the "Schizophrenia spectrum" has been particularly shared with you all to extend my message to help these affected people at the right time and maintaining their condition to prevent them from committing such crimes as there is no proper mental health care--Clinical, Legal or authoritative help available for convicts suffering from mental disorder.
Classificatory systems - Advantages & DisadvantagesHemangi Narvekar
Classification of Diseases/Disorders are important to improve treatment and prevention efforts. Two important classification system used in the field of Mental Disorders are DSM -V and ICD -10. Here we will discuss Strengths and Weaknesses of both.
Culture bound syndrome, culture related specific disorders, culture specific disorders/ syndromes, exotic psychiatric syndromes or Rare atypical unclassifiable disorders.
Will talk about the severe psychological disorders-- The familiar name for all might be -"Schizophrenia" - it is not just one category but has multiple categories combined under -"Schizophrenia spectrum"
My forensic psychiatric research done in Indian jails shows most convicts under murder cases belong to schizophrenia spectrum (98% schizophrenia and 2% paranoid & schizoid personality disorders), and most have murdered their spouses, family members, friends or colleagues and surrendered themselves on the spot.
This presentation on the "Schizophrenia spectrum" has been particularly shared with you all to extend my message to help these affected people at the right time and maintaining their condition to prevent them from committing such crimes as there is no proper mental health care--Clinical, Legal or authoritative help available for convicts suffering from mental disorder.
The document aims to provide a comprehensive view of psycho-dynamic model, its assumptions, historical background, Freud's contribution, causes of abnormality, and role and contribution of other contributors
Sigmund Freud and The Psychoanalytic Therapy 101Russell de Villa
Pretty much a 'simple' presentation showing the concept of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and a couple of techniques that come along with it. Used only for more 'advanced' learners in the field of Psychology.
This was presented on my Masteral Class on the subject: Seminar on Group Counseling and Psychotherapy. Feel free to edit, add your info, and even tweak the presentations to your desire.
Side-note: Pictures seen in the presentation are from artists from DeviantArt, Credit goes to all of them.
Its is a group assignment prepared by me and my university fellows on Personality Psychology in 1st Semester of BS Applied Psychology.Maybe its helpful to you guys .Please give your feedback .
Schools of Thought in Psychology
When psychology first emerged as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology.
These clinical notes explain the role played by conflicts as a causative factor in the psychoneuroses and war neuroses in Freudian psychoanalysis.
The Freudian theory of conflict, I argue, is useful not only to clinicians, but also to central bankers who are trying to formulate a theory of stability and stabilization.
What psychoanalysis makes available for these central bankers is a formal theory of the subject that incorporates the structure and function of the unconscious.
It also explains the macro-economy of the symptom given that clinicians have a lot of exposure to neurotic forms of instability.
The main wager in these clinical notes is that it will make possible a theoretical discussion between psychoanalysts and financial analysts in order to develop a comprehensive theory of stability.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a PhD in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff.
These clinical notes describe the differences between the 'desire of the subject' and the 'desire of the symbolic Other' in Lacanian psychoanalysis by inverting the conventional subject-object distinction within a theory of the subject.
The theoretical goal here is to identify the forms of libidinal excess that are generated in the act of speech in analysis; and then relate this excess to a theory of stability.
Such an exercise should be of interest to central bankers like Mark Carney of the Bank of England who must not only work out a theory of stability; but must also ponder on the ontological differences between stability at the levels of the individual, the institution, and the macro-economy as a whole.
These ontological differences matter, I argue, lest central bankers forget the importance of the 'fallacy of composition' in economic theory. This fallacy cautions us to avoid the conflation of micro-economic phenomena with macro-economic aggregates while doing economic theory.
These notes also draw a compelling analogy between the forms of libidinal regulation that characterizes clinical interventions in Lacanian psychoanalysis with the role played by counter-cyclical policies in monetary theory and practice in the attempt to regulate interest rates by central bankers.
The burden of the argument here is to show that while the stabilization of systemically important stakeholders in necessary, it is not sufficient. What is required are regulatory mechanisms that will serve a protective function (even if stakeholders act out their conflicts in the symbolic) like circuit breakers that regulate trading in stock exchanges.
These notes conclude by describing psychic mechanisms like 'alienation, separation, and traversing the phantasy' that constitute not only the Lacanian theory of the subject, but also the clinical trajectory that represents the end of analysis.
These notes should be useful not only to clinicians but also to those interested in formulating a theory of stability that is informed by the ideological concerns and clinical themes of Lacanian psychoanalysis.
Needless to say, these notes on the need for a psychoanalytic approach to stability are dedicated - for what they are worth - to Gov. Mark Carney of the Bank of England.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff.
These clinical notes summarize the main points raised by the Lacanian analyst Robert Samuels on the question of analytic technique.
These clinical notes should make it possible for both beginners and clinicians to relate Freudian concepts with Lacanian terms like the real, the imaginary, and the symbolic more effectively.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff.
This review sets out the importance of a special issue of Umbr(a) #1, 1998, on 'Identity and Identification' from the Center for Psychoanalysis and Culture at SUNY, Buffalo for students of law, management, and business.
It explains how a Lacanian theory of the subject can make it possible to manage in a 'psychoanalytically informed manner' by making a case for incorporating the insights of Lacanian psychoanalysis in the mainstream professions.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff.
This review essay on Sigmund Freud's 'Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego' describes how an understanding of psychoanalysis can further the reader's ability to situate and intervene in the context of group dynamics.
It lists the differences between individual and group psychology before describing the dangers of crowds and the contagion effect before setting out the structure and forms of identification between members in groups.
The main argument in the essay is that groups should guard against regression to more primitive forms of organizational life that Freud characterized as crowds and herds that are subject to the contagion effect.
In instances of such regression, groups will be able to repair themselves more effectively if they are psychoanalytically informed.
That is why this review essay on Freudian psychoanalysis is aimed at not only analysts but to an audience of bankers, economists, and social scientists.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff (1996).
This book review explores the relationship between psychoanalysis and history.
It makes a case for why historians should be interested in psychoanalysis; and explains why the quest for freedom as an existential or historical state is mediated by negation in the Freudian theory of subjectivity.
This review should be of interest to historians, psychoanalysts, and students of the human sciences.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff.
This book review describes the theoretical challenges involved in incorporating the Lacanian model of the subject within mainstream American ego psychology (given the huge amount of philosophical knowledge that Lacan assumes in his readers).
It will be of use to clinicians, literary critics, and philosophers who want to engage with Lacanian theory and practice.
This paper analyzes what Sigmund Freud was trying to do both as an an analyst and as a writer in his autobiography of 1925. It describes Freud's compositional ratio, fantasies in writing about psychoanalysis, early life, the Freudian clinic, the Freudian subject, and concludes that reading Freud is still the best way to learn psychoanalysis.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in literature and psychoanalysis from the University of Wales at Cardiff, UK (1996).
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. in English Literature and Psychoanalysis from the University of Wales, Cardiff (1996).
His thesis was titled 'Oedipus Redux: D.H. Lawrence in the Freudian Field.'
These clinical notes should be of use to both theorists and practitioners of psychoanalysis in the tradition of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. from the University of Wales at Cardiff in English Literature and Lacanian Psychoanalysis (1996). His Ph.D. thesis was titled ‘Oedipus Redux: D. H. Lawrence in the Freudian Field.’
This series of 'clinical study notes' summarize the main points raised in important psychoanalytic texts.
They should be of use to students, theorists, and lay practitioners of psychoanalysis who are preparing to read or re-read the psychoanalytic literature associated mainly (though not only) with the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.
These clinical notes describe the main points raised by Jacques-Alain Miller of the University of Paris VIII in the first Paris/Chicago psychoanalytic workshop on the analytic cure on July 25, 1986.
Miller starts by addressing common misconceptions about Lacanian theory and practice before explaining the structure, the techniques, and the forms of interpretation that constitute the analytic clinic.
Miller concludes by explaining why the definition of the analytic cure is not reducible to the biological model of adaptation or the invocation of borderline categories. The most important challenge of psychoanalysis will always be to explain hysteria.
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. from the University of Wales at Cardiff in English Literature and Lacanian Psychoanalysis (1996). His Ph.D. thesis was titled ‘Oedipus Redux: D. H. Lawrence in the Freudian Field.’ These clinical study notes summarize the main points raised in important psychoanalytic texts. They should be of use to students, theorists, and lay practitioners of psychoanalysis who are preparing to read or re-read the psychoanalytic literature associated mainly (though not only) with the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.
These clinical notes summarize the main arguments in Jacques-Alain Miller's Paris-New York Workshop of 1988 titled 'A and a in Clinical Structures.'
Shiva Kumar Srinivasan has a Ph.D. from the University of Wales at Cardiff in English Literature and Lacanian Psychoanalysis (1996). His Ph.D. thesis was titled ‘Oedipus Redux: D. H. Lawrence in the Freudian Field.’ These clinical study notes summarize the main points raised in important psychoanalytic texts. They should be of use to students, theorists, and lay practitioners of psychoanalysis who are preparing to read or re-read the psychoanalytic literature associated mainly (though not only) with the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
1. 1
CLINICAL NOTES
SIGMUND FREUD ON ‘THE PSYCHIC APPARATUS’
Freud, Sigmund (1940). ‘An Outline of Psychoanalysis,’ Historical and Expository
Works on Psychoanalysis, translated by James Strachey, edited by Albert Dickson
(London: Penguin Books, 1993), pp. 369-443.
What is the psyche?
All theorists and clinicians assume that there is something that answers to this term.
In his ‘Outline of Psychoanalysis,’ Sigmund Freud set out to explain what exactly the
psyche is.
Freud’s first move is to invoke a spatial metaphor; the psyche is simply compared to
a scientific apparatus (like a microscope or a telescope). These apparatuses are used
to explore the external world.
A scientist’s ability to make sense of that which is very small or that which is very far
is a function of the ability to use these optical instruments.
It takes a certain amount of effort to learn to use them correctly and to see through to
a world that is different from that which we inhabit (even though the term ‘reality’
encompasses all these three worlds): the world in which we live; the world of that
which is very small; and the world of that which is very far.
The difference however between these scientific instruments and the psychical
apparatus (i.e. the psyche compared to a scientific instrument) is that the
deployment of these instruments presupposes the existence of the psyche that can
make sense of what it explores.
Any attempt to study the structure and function of the psychical apparatus is
therefore necessarily self-reflexive; it is a bit like an optical instrument contemplating
its own structure and function.
2. 2
Or, to put it simply, the ‘knowing subject’ is attempting to describe his own psychic
apparatus albeit in the context of psychoanalysis.
That then is the theoretical difficulty that Freud encounters when he sets out to
describe what is at stake in describing the most important of all these scientific
instruments – the human mind which he describes as the ‘psychic apparatus.’
What then is the structure of the psychic apparatus?
The basic challenge for Freud is to reconcile three theories of the mind that exist in
his work: ‘the topographical model, the structural model, and the economic model.’
Most readers will be acquainted with the structural model comprising ‘the id, the
ego, and the superego.’
Before setting out this model, Freud was also preoccupied with another aspect of the
psyche which is not about ‘what-is-what’ like in the structural model, but about
‘what-is-where’ in terms of ‘psychical qualities.’
This topographical model of the psyche is related to the relationship between
psychical qualities like ‘consciousness, the preconscious, and the unconscious.’
It is also an attempt to relate the unconscious with the theory of repression.
Freud was at pains to point out that everything that is repressed is unconscious, but not
everything that is unconscious is repressed. The function of repression can also be
differentiated between ‘primal repression’ and ‘repression proper.’
The former is a structural phenomenon that constitutes how the subject represses the
fantasy that attends to the oedipal matrix in childhood; the latter relates to the
derivatives of the primal repression that must be repressed repeatedly.
The differences between these levels of repression can also be described from an
economic point of view (in addition to the topographic and structural models of the
psyche).
The basic problem in severe forms of repression is that it is not economical. Freud
uses the term ‘economic’ as an adjectival form to refer to his theory of psychic
expenditure.
Repression proper is what is at stake in releasing the symptomatic pain experienced
by the subject in analysis because it requires an endless expenditure of effort and
energy to keep the primal repression in place.
The theory of the psychic apparatus therefore requires to be described from three
points of view in order to encompass its structure and function.
3. 3
These theories were developed separately in the first instance in the clinic since
Freud was not acquainted with the psychical apparatus in the way in which we are
through his writings.
So unlike the physical and biological sciences in which scientific instruments are
used to explore the external world, the psychic apparatus is used to explore how the
subject relates the internal world, to the external world, and the neurotic
disturbances that makes it difficult to relate these worlds to each other.
As Freud was fond of saying, every neurosis represents a difficulty in relating the
inner world to the outer world.
It leads, sooner or later, to a situation in which the subject finds himself unable to
cope with the demands of an external reality and so turns inward into the recesses of
his own psyche.
That is not because the neurotic subject has any need to find out what is it that was
subject to repression in the first place, but because it becomes a form of neurotic pre-
occupation.
This neurotic preoccupation is tantamount to saying that the subject is more
interested in coping with the demands of his symptoms than with the world outside.
The neurotic subject can be defined as somebody who is fleeing both the reality of the
external world and the real of the internal world.
Freud’s task in describing the psychic apparatus then in the context of a theory of
energy is to describe how and why this happens and suggest a solution through the
interventions of analysis.
In order to do this he describes these three theories: the structural, the topographic,
and the economic and then relates them to each other to get a comprehensive
description of the psychic apparatus.
4. 4
However the elements of interaction between these theories can be overlooked if the
reader is not careful to relate these different aspects of the psychic apparatus
together as Freud does.
Most misunderstandings of psychoanalytic theory or practice relate to one or more
of the points listed above.
So, for instance, a reader can conflate these three theories or not understand why the
psychic apparatus is described from three points of view.
The reader may not understand the relationship between the unconscious and the
function of repression; or, how to differentiate between primal repression and
repression proper.
If the reader gets through all these aspects, he will have difficulty in situating the
theory of psychic expenditure within a model Freudian energetics.
Freudian energetics itself is related to the theory of libido and the theory of affects. It
is important to remember that libido and affects are usually displaced and not
subject to repression.
It is always the ‘ideational representative’ of the oedipal matrix; or, as Jacques Lacan
puts it, the ‘signifier’ that is subject to primal repression and not the affects or quanta
of libido attached to the signifier.
Repression proper is related to preventing the derivatives of primal repression from
coming into consciousness.
The economic model of the psychic apparatus is related to the structural opposition
between the ‘pleasure principle’ and the ‘reality principle.’
Freud describes the psychic apparatus as having a specific capacity for homeostasis
(i.e. keeping tension at an optimal level).
The neurotic subject however will not be able to process stress, tension, or any other
affect at the optimal level that is required to be functional in the sense that is
presupposed in the physiological model of Walter Cannon (which Freud imported
into his model of the pleasure principle).
This element of the psyche is also misunderstood; the pleasure principle is not about
doing whatever the subject wants to do but about a form of self-regulation.
So, for instance, clinical observations and theoretical inferences lead us to believe
that the subject cannot bear too much pleasure or happiness since that will activate
the superego.
5. 5
The subject therefore tries to self-regulate the levels of excitement that his psyche can
handle at any point in time.
The Freudian theory of death instinct is also relevant here; the death instinct is
mainly activated when the subject goes ‘beyond the pleasure principle.’
That means when the neurotic subject seeks ‘pleasure-in-pain’ and ‘pain-in-pleasure’
(jouissance) without attempting to keep these things apart through the pleasure-pain
calculus like the normative subject of analytic theory, he is more likely to seek
recourse to uneconomic measures in respond to internal or external stimuli.
This is an indication that his death instincts have been triggered off and he will fall
prey to the ‘fight-unto-death’ syndrome; the actual death of the subject then is
preceded by these forms of negative activation in the psyche.
Needless to say, clinicians must be on the lookout for how attached the subject of
analysis is to his jouissance, and the circumstances in which it can trigger off his
death instincts.
Early indications that the death instinct is being pre-maturely activated relates to the
propensity to act-out or seek uneconomic responses to the problems of everyday life.
That then is a brief description of what Sigmund Freud has to tell us about the
psychic apparatus.
SHIVA KUMAR SRINIVASAN