This document appears to be a lab manual for experiments in fluid mechanics. It includes objectives, outcomes, a list of 10 experiments, and details on several experiments including calibration of pressure gauges, determining friction factor in pipes, calibration of a venturi meter, and verifying Bernoulli's theorem. The experiments are mapped to course outcomes and involve determining coefficients, losses, flow rates, and verifying principles of fluid mechanics. Precautions, observations tables, and evaluation criteria are provided for selected experiments.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 7 on applying the Bernoulli equation. It discusses the target population as second year environmental engineering students. The main goal is to understand applications of the Bernoulli equation in fluid mechanics situations. Examples covered include using a Pitot tube to measure flow velocity, using a Venturi meter to measure discharge in pipes, and calculating discharge from tanks through orifices using the Bernoulli equation. It provides sample problems and solutions for applying Bernoulli's equation in these different contexts. Performance objectives are also listed so students can apply what they learn to problems involving flow measurement devices and tank discharge calculations.
This document describes experiments conducted to determine the characteristics of different types of hydraulic turbines under constant head conditions. The experiments measure parameters such as speed, power output, flow rate, and efficiency at varying loads. Formulas are provided to calculate hydraulic power input, brake horsepower, unit quantities, and turbine efficiency. Graphs of unit speed vs. unit power, unit discharge and efficiency are used to obtain the constant head characteristic curves and determine the maximum efficiency for each turbine type. Turbines tested include Pelton wheel, Francis, and Kaplan turbines. Precautions and sample calculations are also outlined.
This document discusses orifices and mouthpieces used for measuring fluid flow rates. It defines an orifice as a small opening through which fluid can flow, and notes they are classified based on size, shape, edge shape, and whether submerged or not. Mouthpieces are short pipe sections used to measure flow, and are classified by position, shape, and whether the jet fills or runs free after contraction. The document also defines hydraulic coefficients - the coefficient of velocity, contraction, and discharge - which are ratios used to characterize actual versus theoretical flow properties.
it speaks about the differential head flow meters. its different types. their principle of operation, venturi meter, orifice plate, rotameters, it also covers discussion on open channel flow meter. it covers the different application domains of the different types of flow meters and their advantages and disadvantages.
A study on Nonlinear flow through an orifice metersunnynita
The document presents a study on nonlinear flow through orifice meters. It discusses:
- The working principle of orifice meters and factors that cause nonlinear flow
- Governing equations for modeling unsteady nonlinear flow through orifices
- A literature review of past studies on acoustic nonlinearity in orifices and CFD simulations of orifice flow
- Results of simulations showing the relationships between discharge, head, pressure gradient, and Forchheimer number
- Conclusions that the flow is affected by pressure gradient and fluid velocity, and that Forchheimer number is important for modeling nonlinear orifice flow
All the three types of flowmeters i.e. venturi-meter, orifice-meter and rota-meter. The Principle, construction, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages are briefly explained.
Flow Through Orifices, Orifice, Types of Orifice according to Shape Size Edge Discharge, Jet, Venacontracta, Hydraulic Coefficients, Coefficient of Contraction,Coefficient of Velocity, Coefficient of Discharge, Coefficient of Resistance, Hydraulic Coefficients by Experimental Method, Discharge Through a Small rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Large rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Fully Drowned orifice, Discharge Through Partially Drowned orifice, Mouthpiece and its types. By Engr. M. Jalal Sarwar
This document provides an overview of Chapter 7 on applying the Bernoulli equation. It discusses the target population as second year environmental engineering students. The main goal is to understand applications of the Bernoulli equation in fluid mechanics situations. Examples covered include using a Pitot tube to measure flow velocity, using a Venturi meter to measure discharge in pipes, and calculating discharge from tanks through orifices using the Bernoulli equation. It provides sample problems and solutions for applying Bernoulli's equation in these different contexts. Performance objectives are also listed so students can apply what they learn to problems involving flow measurement devices and tank discharge calculations.
This document describes experiments conducted to determine the characteristics of different types of hydraulic turbines under constant head conditions. The experiments measure parameters such as speed, power output, flow rate, and efficiency at varying loads. Formulas are provided to calculate hydraulic power input, brake horsepower, unit quantities, and turbine efficiency. Graphs of unit speed vs. unit power, unit discharge and efficiency are used to obtain the constant head characteristic curves and determine the maximum efficiency for each turbine type. Turbines tested include Pelton wheel, Francis, and Kaplan turbines. Precautions and sample calculations are also outlined.
This document discusses orifices and mouthpieces used for measuring fluid flow rates. It defines an orifice as a small opening through which fluid can flow, and notes they are classified based on size, shape, edge shape, and whether submerged or not. Mouthpieces are short pipe sections used to measure flow, and are classified by position, shape, and whether the jet fills or runs free after contraction. The document also defines hydraulic coefficients - the coefficient of velocity, contraction, and discharge - which are ratios used to characterize actual versus theoretical flow properties.
it speaks about the differential head flow meters. its different types. their principle of operation, venturi meter, orifice plate, rotameters, it also covers discussion on open channel flow meter. it covers the different application domains of the different types of flow meters and their advantages and disadvantages.
A study on Nonlinear flow through an orifice metersunnynita
The document presents a study on nonlinear flow through orifice meters. It discusses:
- The working principle of orifice meters and factors that cause nonlinear flow
- Governing equations for modeling unsteady nonlinear flow through orifices
- A literature review of past studies on acoustic nonlinearity in orifices and CFD simulations of orifice flow
- Results of simulations showing the relationships between discharge, head, pressure gradient, and Forchheimer number
- Conclusions that the flow is affected by pressure gradient and fluid velocity, and that Forchheimer number is important for modeling nonlinear orifice flow
All the three types of flowmeters i.e. venturi-meter, orifice-meter and rota-meter. The Principle, construction, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages are briefly explained.
Flow Through Orifices, Orifice, Types of Orifice according to Shape Size Edge Discharge, Jet, Venacontracta, Hydraulic Coefficients, Coefficient of Contraction,Coefficient of Velocity, Coefficient of Discharge, Coefficient of Resistance, Hydraulic Coefficients by Experimental Method, Discharge Through a Small rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Large rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Fully Drowned orifice, Discharge Through Partially Drowned orifice, Mouthpiece and its types. By Engr. M. Jalal Sarwar
This document describes different flow measurement devices including the venturi meter, orifice plate, and rotameter. It provides details on how each device works based on pressure differences caused by a flow restriction. The objectives are to study and compare the characteristics of venturi meters and orifice plates, calculate flow rates using measured pressure drops, and understand how rotameters operate based on the position of a float. An apparatus is described that can be used to collect pressure and flow rate data from each device to analyze flow measurement principles.
This document describes the operation and use of an orifice meter for measuring fluid flow rates. It discusses how an orifice plate placed in a pipe creates a pressure drop that can be used to calculate flow rate based on Bernoulli's equation. Specifically, it introduces orifice meters and their basic components, explains how they work using principles of fluid dynamics and continuity, provides equations to calculate flow rates, and describes common applications like measuring gas and liquid flows in pipes.
This document provides an overview of the process design of orifice meters and rotameters. It discusses the principles of operation, advantages, and disadvantages of each. For orifice meters, it presents the key equation used to calculate mass flow rate based on pressure differential and includes an example design problem. For rotameters, it presents the equation for calculating mass flow rate based on float properties and flow properties, and includes an example maximum flow rate calculation problem.
This document summarizes an experiment to calibrate a venturi meter and orifice meter by measuring their coefficient of discharge at varying Reynolds numbers. The results show the coefficient of discharge increases linearly with Reynolds number for the orifice meter, while it decreases inversely for the venturi meter. Pressure drop is also greater in the orifice meter compared to the venturi meter. The experiment aimed to compare the two flow measurement devices based on Bernoulli's principle and better understand their characteristics.
Flow measurement quantifies the movement of water and can be done by determining displacement or velocity. Accurate flow measurement is important for industries like power plants for safety and revenue as well as for homeowners to be charged correctly. Flow is controlled using valves and measured using various types of flow meters like positive displacement, mass, and velocity meters. Selection of the proper flow meter and control valve depends on the application and engineering requirements.
An orifice plate is a device used to measure fluid flow rates by creating a restriction in the pipe. It works by measuring the difference in pressure upstream and downstream of the plate. Fluid must constrict through a precisely measured opening in the plate, causing the pressure to drop and creating a relationship between differential pressure and flow rate. Common applications include measurement of clean liquids and gases. The orifice plate is inexpensive and occupies little space but requires straight pipe sections upstream and downstream for accurate measurement.
This experiment aims to calibrate venturi and orifice flow meters. The coefficient of discharge is obtained for both types of meters and plotted against Reynolds number. Pressure drop is also plotted against water flow rate. To calibrate the meters, a known volume of water is passed through and the flow rate is measured. The coefficient of discharge and Reynolds number are then calculated from the experimental data for both venturi and orifice meters.
This document describes the working principle and experimental setup for calibrating a venturimeter. A venturimeter consists of an inlet section followed by a converging section, cylindrical throat, and gradually diverging cone. It works by creating a pressure difference between the inlet and throat sections due to an increase in flow velocity at the throat. This pressure difference is measured to determine the flow rate. The experiment involves taking pressure and flow rate measurements at the inlet and throat sections using a manometer and collecting water over time. The data is then used to calculate discharge coefficients and Reynolds numbers to calibrate the venturimeter.
1) Flow measurement devices use principles like differential pressure and velocity to measure flow rate. Differential pressure devices like Venturi meters and orifice plates cause a pressure drop that is measured to calculate flow.
2) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and height of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It is the basis for differential pressure flow measurement. Devices like Pitot tubes and turbine meters measure velocity which relates to flow rate.
3) Vibration is oscillatory motion that can be caused by unbalanced forces, elasticity, or external excitation. It can have harmful or beneficial effects depending on the system. Measurement devices like vibrometers and accelerometers are used to characterize vibrations.
This document discusses types of orifices used for fluid flow measurement. Orifices can be classified based on their shape (circular, triangular, etc.), size (small or large), edge shape (sharp or bell-mouthed), and whether the flow is submerged or free-flowing. Orifice meters consist of a flat plate with a circular hole and are used to measure flow rates in pipes. They offer little pressure drop but require straight pipe runs and full pipeline filling to maintain accuracy. Mouthpieces are also used for flow measurement and can be internal or external, and classified based on their shape (cylindrical, convergent, convergent-divergent) and whether the flow exits fully or
This document provides an overview of basic flow measurement. It discusses 23 types of flow meter technologies available since 1989. It also covers the basic requirements for flow measurement such as accuracy, integration with piping systems, and cost. Finally, it describes common flow meter types like orifice plates, electromagnetic meters, turbine meters, Coriolis meters and positive displacement meters; and the principles of operation for each.
This document provides an overview of orifices and mouthpieces. It defines an orifice as a small opening on the side or bottom of a tank used to measure fluid flow rate. Orifices are classified based on size, cross-sectional area, shape of the upstream edge, and discharge nature. The document derives the theoretical velocity equation using Bernoulli's equation and defines hydraulic coefficients including the coefficient of velocity (Cv), coefficient of contraction (Cc), and coefficient of discharge (Cd). It provides typical value ranges for each coefficient for different orifice types.
This document discusses different types of notches and weirs used for measuring flow rates of liquids. It provides formulas to calculate discharge over rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, broad crested, narrow crested, and submerged/drowned weirs. Key points include: discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given by Q=8/15Cd tan(θ/2)√2gH(5/2); a broad crested weir has a width at least twice the head and discharge is maximized at Qmax=1.705CdL√2gH(3/2); submerged weirs are divided into a free section and drowned section to calculate total discharge.
Venturi meters use the Bernoulli principle and continuity equation to measure fluid flow rates. They consist of a converging section, throat, and diverging section. As the fluid flows through the converging section into the throat, its pressure decreases. This pressure difference is measured using a manometer and can be calibrated to determine flow rate, as flow rate is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure difference. Venturi meters are commonly used to measure flow rates of water, gases, and liquids in large diameter pipes.
This experiment measures the coefficients of discharge (CD), velocity (CV), and contraction (CC) for water flowing through orifices. Students will collect flow rate data for two orifice plates across a range of water heights and use this to calculate the coefficients. Graphs will then compare how the coefficients vary with orifice size. The relationships provide insight into flow properties and validate theoretical models.
Variable head meters use different principles and designs to measure fluid flow velocity or discharge rate. Pitot tubes use stagnation pressure to measure flow velocity. They consist of a bent glass tube placed in flow, where the height of liquid rise indicates stagnation pressure head. Orifice meters measure flow rate using a differential manometer and the pressure drop across an orifice plate. Venturi meters also use differential pressure but have a converging-diverging nozzle shape to reduce head losses. Weirs and notches are open channel flow measurement devices where flow rate correlates to upstream water depth. Flumes are specially designed open channels also used for flow measurement.
introduction to flow,flow type,laminar,turbulent,one dimensional flow,two dimensional flow,type of flow measurement,flow measuring elements,orifices,nozzles,venturi,pitot tubes,limitations,advantages of the elements,application of elements
Estimate coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V notches weirsNabeel Afzal
This document summarizes an experiment to estimate the coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V-notch weirs. The apparatus used includes a hydraulic bench, rectangular notch, V-notch, and stopwatch. The procedure involves measuring the notch dimensions, setting up the apparatus, taking head and flow rate measurements, and calculating the theoretical and actual discharge and coefficient of discharge. Observations were then recorded for different heads for both the rectangular and V-notch weirs.
Energy losses in Bends, loss coefficient related to velocity head.Pelton Whee...Salman Jailani
In this slide you learn the how to make the lablayout and the study the Energy losses, Pelton Wheel. Kaplan TURBINE, Franices TURBine And its Efficiency of Mecahanical Power Plants..
00923006902338
This document describes different flow measurement devices including the venturi meter, orifice plate, and rotameter. It provides details on how each device works based on pressure differences caused by a flow restriction. The objectives are to study and compare the characteristics of venturi meters and orifice plates, calculate flow rates using measured pressure drops, and understand how rotameters operate based on the position of a float. An apparatus is described that can be used to collect pressure and flow rate data from each device to analyze flow measurement principles.
This document describes the operation and use of an orifice meter for measuring fluid flow rates. It discusses how an orifice plate placed in a pipe creates a pressure drop that can be used to calculate flow rate based on Bernoulli's equation. Specifically, it introduces orifice meters and their basic components, explains how they work using principles of fluid dynamics and continuity, provides equations to calculate flow rates, and describes common applications like measuring gas and liquid flows in pipes.
This document provides an overview of the process design of orifice meters and rotameters. It discusses the principles of operation, advantages, and disadvantages of each. For orifice meters, it presents the key equation used to calculate mass flow rate based on pressure differential and includes an example design problem. For rotameters, it presents the equation for calculating mass flow rate based on float properties and flow properties, and includes an example maximum flow rate calculation problem.
This document summarizes an experiment to calibrate a venturi meter and orifice meter by measuring their coefficient of discharge at varying Reynolds numbers. The results show the coefficient of discharge increases linearly with Reynolds number for the orifice meter, while it decreases inversely for the venturi meter. Pressure drop is also greater in the orifice meter compared to the venturi meter. The experiment aimed to compare the two flow measurement devices based on Bernoulli's principle and better understand their characteristics.
Flow measurement quantifies the movement of water and can be done by determining displacement or velocity. Accurate flow measurement is important for industries like power plants for safety and revenue as well as for homeowners to be charged correctly. Flow is controlled using valves and measured using various types of flow meters like positive displacement, mass, and velocity meters. Selection of the proper flow meter and control valve depends on the application and engineering requirements.
An orifice plate is a device used to measure fluid flow rates by creating a restriction in the pipe. It works by measuring the difference in pressure upstream and downstream of the plate. Fluid must constrict through a precisely measured opening in the plate, causing the pressure to drop and creating a relationship between differential pressure and flow rate. Common applications include measurement of clean liquids and gases. The orifice plate is inexpensive and occupies little space but requires straight pipe sections upstream and downstream for accurate measurement.
This experiment aims to calibrate venturi and orifice flow meters. The coefficient of discharge is obtained for both types of meters and plotted against Reynolds number. Pressure drop is also plotted against water flow rate. To calibrate the meters, a known volume of water is passed through and the flow rate is measured. The coefficient of discharge and Reynolds number are then calculated from the experimental data for both venturi and orifice meters.
This document describes the working principle and experimental setup for calibrating a venturimeter. A venturimeter consists of an inlet section followed by a converging section, cylindrical throat, and gradually diverging cone. It works by creating a pressure difference between the inlet and throat sections due to an increase in flow velocity at the throat. This pressure difference is measured to determine the flow rate. The experiment involves taking pressure and flow rate measurements at the inlet and throat sections using a manometer and collecting water over time. The data is then used to calculate discharge coefficients and Reynolds numbers to calibrate the venturimeter.
1) Flow measurement devices use principles like differential pressure and velocity to measure flow rate. Differential pressure devices like Venturi meters and orifice plates cause a pressure drop that is measured to calculate flow.
2) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and height of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It is the basis for differential pressure flow measurement. Devices like Pitot tubes and turbine meters measure velocity which relates to flow rate.
3) Vibration is oscillatory motion that can be caused by unbalanced forces, elasticity, or external excitation. It can have harmful or beneficial effects depending on the system. Measurement devices like vibrometers and accelerometers are used to characterize vibrations.
This document discusses types of orifices used for fluid flow measurement. Orifices can be classified based on their shape (circular, triangular, etc.), size (small or large), edge shape (sharp or bell-mouthed), and whether the flow is submerged or free-flowing. Orifice meters consist of a flat plate with a circular hole and are used to measure flow rates in pipes. They offer little pressure drop but require straight pipe runs and full pipeline filling to maintain accuracy. Mouthpieces are also used for flow measurement and can be internal or external, and classified based on their shape (cylindrical, convergent, convergent-divergent) and whether the flow exits fully or
This document provides an overview of basic flow measurement. It discusses 23 types of flow meter technologies available since 1989. It also covers the basic requirements for flow measurement such as accuracy, integration with piping systems, and cost. Finally, it describes common flow meter types like orifice plates, electromagnetic meters, turbine meters, Coriolis meters and positive displacement meters; and the principles of operation for each.
This document provides an overview of orifices and mouthpieces. It defines an orifice as a small opening on the side or bottom of a tank used to measure fluid flow rate. Orifices are classified based on size, cross-sectional area, shape of the upstream edge, and discharge nature. The document derives the theoretical velocity equation using Bernoulli's equation and defines hydraulic coefficients including the coefficient of velocity (Cv), coefficient of contraction (Cc), and coefficient of discharge (Cd). It provides typical value ranges for each coefficient for different orifice types.
This document discusses different types of notches and weirs used for measuring flow rates of liquids. It provides formulas to calculate discharge over rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, broad crested, narrow crested, and submerged/drowned weirs. Key points include: discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given by Q=8/15Cd tan(θ/2)√2gH(5/2); a broad crested weir has a width at least twice the head and discharge is maximized at Qmax=1.705CdL√2gH(3/2); submerged weirs are divided into a free section and drowned section to calculate total discharge.
Venturi meters use the Bernoulli principle and continuity equation to measure fluid flow rates. They consist of a converging section, throat, and diverging section. As the fluid flows through the converging section into the throat, its pressure decreases. This pressure difference is measured using a manometer and can be calibrated to determine flow rate, as flow rate is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure difference. Venturi meters are commonly used to measure flow rates of water, gases, and liquids in large diameter pipes.
This experiment measures the coefficients of discharge (CD), velocity (CV), and contraction (CC) for water flowing through orifices. Students will collect flow rate data for two orifice plates across a range of water heights and use this to calculate the coefficients. Graphs will then compare how the coefficients vary with orifice size. The relationships provide insight into flow properties and validate theoretical models.
Variable head meters use different principles and designs to measure fluid flow velocity or discharge rate. Pitot tubes use stagnation pressure to measure flow velocity. They consist of a bent glass tube placed in flow, where the height of liquid rise indicates stagnation pressure head. Orifice meters measure flow rate using a differential manometer and the pressure drop across an orifice plate. Venturi meters also use differential pressure but have a converging-diverging nozzle shape to reduce head losses. Weirs and notches are open channel flow measurement devices where flow rate correlates to upstream water depth. Flumes are specially designed open channels also used for flow measurement.
introduction to flow,flow type,laminar,turbulent,one dimensional flow,two dimensional flow,type of flow measurement,flow measuring elements,orifices,nozzles,venturi,pitot tubes,limitations,advantages of the elements,application of elements
Estimate coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V notches weirsNabeel Afzal
This document summarizes an experiment to estimate the coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V-notch weirs. The apparatus used includes a hydraulic bench, rectangular notch, V-notch, and stopwatch. The procedure involves measuring the notch dimensions, setting up the apparatus, taking head and flow rate measurements, and calculating the theoretical and actual discharge and coefficient of discharge. Observations were then recorded for different heads for both the rectangular and V-notch weirs.
Energy losses in Bends, loss coefficient related to velocity head.Pelton Whee...Salman Jailani
In this slide you learn the how to make the lablayout and the study the Energy losses, Pelton Wheel. Kaplan TURBINE, Franices TURBine And its Efficiency of Mecahanical Power Plants..
00923006902338
The document discusses various methods of measuring fluid flow, including primary methods that directly measure volume or mass flow rate, and secondary methods that infer flow rate from velocity or pressure measurements. It describes common flow measurement devices like orifice plates, venturi tubes, flow nozzles, and positive displacement meters. Key aspects of fluid flow and relevant non-dimensional numbers are also introduced.
This document summarizes an experiment measuring pipe friction for turbulent flow. The experiment used a brass pipe with an inner diameter of 3mm and length of 524mm. Water flow rates were measured through the pipe, and Reynolds numbers, velocities, and friction coefficients were calculated and recorded in a table. While the theoretical friction coefficient decreased with increasing Reynolds number, the measured friction coefficient fluctuated, possibly due to experimental errors in maintaining a stable flow rate or accurately recording timer measurements.
The document describes an experiment conducted to determine pipe friction losses in laminar and turbulent flow by measuring head loss at varying flow velocities in a brass pipe. Graphs are presented comparing measured and theoretical friction coefficients against Reynolds number, showing a linear relationship for laminar flow and a non-linear relationship for turbulent flow. The results provide data to distinguish between laminar and turbulent water flow in pipes and observe the relationship between head loss and Reynolds number.
This laboratory manual provides instructions for 13 fluid mechanics experiments. The experiments are aimed at determining various fluid flow coefficients and verifying fluid dynamics principles. Some key experiments include determining the coefficient of discharge for an orifice meter and notch, verifying Bernoulli's theorem, and measuring major losses like friction factor in pipes. Proper procedures and formulas are provided for each experiment along with expected observations and precautions.
1. The document describes an experiment to calculate the loss coefficient (K) for different pipe components, including pipe bends, branches, and changes in cross-section.
2. Tests were conducted to measure the minor losses through pipe elbows at various angles, double elbows, and a single elbow.
3. The loss coefficients were calculated based on measurements of pressure difference, flow velocity, and component geometry. Loss coefficients ranged from 0.548 to 2.345 depending on the pipe component.
The document discusses various methods for measuring fluid flow, including differential pressure flow meters, velocity flow meters, positive displacement flow meters, and open channel flow meters. It provides details on some common differential pressure flow meter technologies like orifice plates and pitot tubes. An orifice plate works by measuring the differential pressure across the plate to calculate flow rate, while a pitot tube measures the difference between stagnation and static pressures to determine fluid velocity at a point. The document also explains factors to consider in selecting a flow measurement approach and classifies meters as either primary quantity meters or secondary rate meters.
1
KNE351 Fluid Mechanics 1
Laboratory Notes
Broad-Crested Weir
This booklet contains instructions and notes for the experiment listed above.
Additional material relating to laboratory work will be delivered during the
course. The expectations regarding lab work and reporting are described in a
separate document,‘KNE351. FLUIDMECHANICS: Laboratory Method and
Reporting’, which will also be circulated at the beginning of the course. It is
expected that all students study these notes and complete the pre-lab component
prior to the laboratory session. An overview of the laboratory equipment will
be provided at the beginning of each session.
A D Henderson
2
1. Learning Objectives
1. Observe and understand the behaviour of a real fluid flowing over a broad-crested weir,
2. Model this behaviour employing the Continuity and Bernoulli (Energy) Principles to
predict the flow rate from depth measurements.
3. Evaluate these predictions by comparing with measured values and use Specific Energy
to explain the changing nature of the flow over the weir.
2. Introduction
The theory of non-uniform flow in channels is covered by the course text, by many other fluid
mechanics texts, and by several web sites.
The specific energy, E, is the energy at a channel cross-section referred to the base of the
channel (in contrast to the Bernoulli equation, which is referred to a fixed horizontal datum).
The expression given for E is actually an approximation valid for small bed slopes. You've
measured the flume slope, and should examine this approximation in your report. A hydrostatic
pressure distribution is assumed, and you should also examine the validity of this assumption. If
the streamlines are not parallel, then the accelerative forces will modify the pressure - depth
relationship.
In general, two conjugate flows depths satisfy the specific energy equation for a given value of
the specific energy. The greater depth is associated with subcritical flow, and the shallower
depth with supercritical flow. At the critical depth the conjugate depths are equal, and the
discharge for the given specific energy is a maximum.
Broad crested weirs are used as a method of flow measurement in open channel flows. If the
weir is sufficiently high and long, the free surface will drop to critical depth. If the height of
the upstream flow is measured, then the flow rate can be determined.
3
3. Apparatus
• Water flume comprising of pump, control valve, venturi and v-notch flow meters,
downstream control gate.
• depth gauges
• 2 vertical water manometers
• 2 total head tubes
4. Preparation
Examine and sketch the layout of the channel and associated flow measuring equipment.
Measure the channel width and note significant geometrical parameters of the nozzle venturi
meter and V-notch weir. Note the directions of readings of all measuring scales.
a. Measure the channel, weir dimensions, a.
This document discusses basic flow instrumentation and venturimeters. It describes how instrumentation is used to measure physical properties of matter like temperature and flow. A venturimeter uses Bernoulli's principle to measure fluid flow velocity through a pipe. It has a converging section that narrows to a throat where velocity increases and pressure decreases, creating a pressure difference used to calculate flow rate. The document outlines the diagram, construction, working principle and applications of venturimeters in measuring fluid flow in various industries like aviation, automotive, medical and chemicals.
This document discusses instrumentation and measurement of process variables like flow, pressure, temperature, and level. It provides definitions of key terms and explains common instrumentation used to measure different process variables. Specifically, it discusses orifice plates, differential pressure transmitters, and methods of measuring level both directly and indirectly in open and closed tanks.
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page .docxjoyjonna282
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page 2
2
ME495—Thermo Fluids Laboratory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
AND PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
CALIBRATION
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PREPARED BY: GROUP LEADER’S NAME
LAB PARTNERS: NAME
NAME
NAME
TIME/DATE OF EXPERIMENT: TIME , DATE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
OBJECTIVE— The objectives of this experiment are
to: a) observe the characteristics of flow in a pipe,
b) evaluate the flow rate in a pipe using velocity
and pressure difference measurements, and c)
perform the calibration of a pressure transducer.
Upon completing this experiment you should have
learned (i) how to measure the flow rate and average
velocity in a pipe using a Pitot tube and/or a resistance
flow meter, and (ii) how to classify the general
characteristics of a pipe flow.
Nomenclature
a = speed of sound, m/s
A = area, m
2
C = discharge coefficient, dimensionless
d = pipe diameter, m
d0 = orifice diameter, m
E = velocity approach factor, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
K0 = flow coefficient, dimensionless
k = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv), dimensionless
L = length of pipe, m
M = Mach number, dimensionless
p = pressure, Pa
p0 = stagnation pressure, Pa
p1, p2 = pressure at two axial locations along a
pipe, Pa
Q = volumetric flow rate, m
3
/s
R = specific gas constant, J·kg/K
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
T = temperature, K
V = local velocity, m/s
V = average velocity, m/s
Y = adiabatic expansion factor, dimensionless
= ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter,
dimensionless
p = pressure drop across an orifice meter, Pa
= dynamic viscosity, Pa·s
= air density, kg/m3
INTRODUCTION— The flow of a fluid (liquid or
gas) through pipes or ducts is a common part of many
engineering systems. Household applications include
the flow of water in copper pipes, the flow of natural
gas in steel pipes, and the flow of heated air through
metal ducts of rectangular cross-section in a forced-air
furnace system. Industrial applications range from the
flow of liquid plastics in a manufacturing plant, to the
flow of yogurt in a food-processing plant. Because the
purpose of a piping system is to transport a desired
quantity of fluid, it is important to understand the
various methods of measuring the flow rate.
In order to work with a fluid system, and certainly to
design a fluid system that will deliver a prescribed
flow, it is necessary to understand certain fundamental
aspects of the fluid flow. For this, one should be able
to answer questions like: Are compressibility effects
important? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Is the
viscosity of the fluid important or not? Is the flow
steady or varying with time? What are the primary
forces of importance? For internal ...
This document contains information about experiments to be conducted in a fluid mechanics and machinery laboratory. It includes the list of 10 experiments that will be performed, which involve determining coefficients of discharge for orifice meters, venturi meters and rotameters, as well as conducting tests on centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps, turbines, and more. Instructions are provided for students on laboratory safety and procedures. Details of the required equipment are also listed.
1) This document describes an experiment on fluid mechanics involving the flow of air and water through pipes.
2) The objectives are to study how friction changes with flow rate, verify that friction is independent of fluid type, compare measurements to theory, and determine an empirical relationship for high flow rates.
3) The procedure involves measuring pressure drops across an orifice plate and test section for increasing flow rates, and plotting the results on log-log scales to analyze friction coefficients versus Reynolds numbers.
- The document describes an experiment conducted using a Venturi meter to measure fluid flow rate.
- A Venturi meter works by creating a constriction that increases flow velocity and decreases pressure at the throat, allowing flow rate calculations using Bernoulli's theorem.
- The experiment measured flow rates of 6.6, 8.9, and 1.08 cubic meters per second using a Venturi meter, manometer, and volumetric method.
1) The document describes an experiment measuring fluid pressure using Bernoulli's principle. A Venturi nozzle and pitot tube are used to measure static and total fluid pressures at different points.
2) Tables of pressure measurements are presented and graphs show the relationships between flow velocity, pressure, and other variables according to Bernoulli's equations.
3) The results are discussed in relation to real-world examples of Bernoulli's principle like aircraft wings and passing vehicles. Pressure, velocity, and forces are analyzed.
Experimental Investigations and Computational Analysis on Subsonic Wind Tunnelijtsrd
This paper disclose the entire approach to design an open circuit subsonic wind tunnel which will be used to consider the wind impact on the airfoil. The current rules and discoveries of the past research works were sought after for plan figuring of different segments of the wind tunnel. Wind speed of 26 m s have been practiced at the test territory. The wind qualities over a symmetrical airfoil are viewed as probably in a low speed wind tunnel. Tests were finished by moving the approach, from 0 to 5 degree. The stream attributes over a symmetrical airfoil are examined tentatively. The pressure distribution on the airfoil area was estimated, lift and drag force were estimated and velocity profiles were acquired. Rishabh Kumar Sahu | Saurabh Sharma | Vivek Swaroop | Vishal Kumar ""Experimental Investigations and Computational Analysis on Subsonic Wind Tunnel"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23511.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/23511/experimental-investigations-and-computational-analysis-on-subsonic-wind-tunnel/rishabh-kumar-sahu
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Construction Part III
Fm lab manual
1. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 1
NAME OF THE STUDENT:
YEAR / SEM / DIV / BATCH:
ROLL NO: IEN NO:
NEW HORIZON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, THANE.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FLUID MECHANICS
(MEL402)
LABORATORY MANUAL
2. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 2
OBJECTIVES:
FLUID MECHANICS
(MEL402)
1. To study measurement as well as calibration principles
2. To practically verify the concepts learnt in theory course
OUTCOMES: Learner will be able to…
1. Calibrate different gauges
2. Measure hydrostatic forces
3. Verify the Archimedes Principle
4. Calibrate Venturimeter, Orificemeter and Pitot tube
5. Verify the Bernoulli’s Principle
6. Read manometers and maintain them.
7. Study & Analyze Aerofoil
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXP. NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS MAPPED CO:PO
1 Calibration of Pressure Gauges MEL402.1:PO 1,2
2 Measurement of Hydrostatic Pressures MEL402.2:PO 1,2
3 Verification of Archimedes’ Principle MEL402.3:PO 1,2
4 Calibration of Venturimeter/ Orificemeter/Nozzlemeter/ Pitot tube MEL402.4:PO 1,2
5 Determine the friction factor for Pipes MEL402.6:PO 1,2,3
6 Determination of major and minor losses in Pipe systems MEL402.6:PO 1,2
7 Verification of Bernoulli’s Equation MEL402.5:PO 1,3
8 Experiment on Laminar flow in pipes MEL402.6:PO 1,2,3
9 Calculation of Lift and Drag over an aerofoil MEL402.7:PO 1,2
10 Determine the pressure profile over an aerofoil MEL402.7:PO 1,2,3
3. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 3
EXPERIMENT NO.
AIM: -
FRICTION FACTOR
To determine the friction factor for the pipes (Major Losses)
APPARATUS USED: -
A flow circuit of G. I. pipes of different diameter viz. 15 mm, 25mm, 32 mm diameter, U-tube
differential manometer, collecting tank.
THEORY: -
Figure: Losses in pipes during flow
Figure: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup (DRAW BY PENCIL)
4. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 4
Friction factor in pipes or Major losses:- A pipe is a closed conduit through which fluid flows
under the pressure. When in the pipe, fluid flows, some of potential energy is lost to overcome
hydraulic resistance which is classified as:-
1. The viscous friction effect associated with fluid flow.
2. The local resistance which results from flow disturbances caused by sudden expansion and
contraction in pipe Obstruction in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings. Curves and
bend in the pipe. Entrance and exit losses. The viscous friction loss or major loss in head
potential energy due to friction is given by Darcy
equation:
Hence the major head loss is friction loss
Where,
hf =Major head loss
l = Length of pipe
4f = Friction factor
v = Inlet velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity
d = Diameter of pipe
PROCEDURE: -
1. Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter and length of pipe between the pressure
tapping, area of collecting tank etc.
2. Pressure tapping of a pipe is kept open while for another pipe is closed.
3. The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount of steady
flow in the pipe.
4. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the left and
right limbs of manometer tube.
5. The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and the discharge & reading
of manometer are recorded.
6. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapping of this pipe, together with other
pipes and for opening of another pipe.
5. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 5
OBSERVATION: -
Diameter of pipe D =
Length of pipe between pressure tapping L =
Area of collecting tank =
Sr.
NO
Manometer Reading Discharge measurement
Left Right
Difference of Head in
terms of water
Initial Final Time Discharge
limb limb hf = 13.6(H2-H1) cm. cm. sec Q
H1 H2 (cm3
/sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
2. There in some water in collecting tank.
3. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
RESULT:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define major loss in pipe?
2. Define equaling pipe?
3. Define friction factor in the pipe?
6. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 6
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
7. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 7
APPLICATION:
Flow in blood vessel
Laminar flow
Laminar flow is the normal condition for blood flow throughout most of the circulatory system. It is
characterized by concentric layers of blood moving in parallel down the length of a blood vessel. The
highest velocity (Vmax) is found in the center of the vessel. The lowest velocity (V=0) is found along the
vessel wall. The flow profile is parabolic once laminar flowis fully developed. This occurs in long, straight
blood vessels, under steady flow conditions. One practical implication of parabolic, laminar flow is that
when flow velocity is measured using a Doppler flowmeter, the velocity value represents the average
velocity of a cross-section of the vessel, not the maximal velocity found in the center of the flow stream.
Turbulent flow
Generally in the body, blood flow is laminar. However, under conditions of high flow, particularly in the
ascending aorta, laminar flow can be disrupted and become turbulent. When this occurs, blood does not
flow linearly and smoothly in adjacent layers, but instead the flow can be described as being chaotic.The
Turbulent flow also occurs in large arteries at branch points, in diseased and narrowed (stenotic) arteries
(see figure below). Turbulence increases the energy required to drive blood flow because turbulence
increases the loss of energy in the form of friction, which generates heat. Turbulence does not begin to
occur until the velocity of flow becomes high enough that the flow lamina break apart. Therefore, as blood
flow velocity increases in a blood vessel or across a heart valve, there is not a gradual increase in
turbulence. Instead, turbulence occurs when a critical Reynolds number (Re) is exceeded.
8. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 8
Figure: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup (DRAW BY PENCIL)
EXPERIMENT NO.
VENTURIMETER
AIM:- To determine the coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter.
APPARATUS USED:- Venturimeter, installed on different diameter pipes, arrangement of
varying flow rate, U- tube manometer, collecting tube tank, etc.
Formula Used
Where
A = Cross section area of inlet
a = Cross section area of outlet
h = Head difference in manometer
Q = Discharge
Cd= Coefficient of discharge
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Theory: - Venturimeter are
depending on Bernoulli’s equation.
Venturimeter is a device used for
measuring the rate of fluid flowing
through a pipe. It consists of three
parts in short Converging area part, Throat & Diverging part.
Figure: Venturimeter
9. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 9
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set the manometer pressure to the atmospheric pressure by opening the upper valve.
2. Now start the supply at water controlled by the stop valve.
3. One of the valves of any one of the pipe open and close all other of three.
4. Take the discharge reading for the particular flow.
5. Take the reading for the pressure head on from the u-tube manometer for corresponding
reading of discharge.
6. Now take three readings for this pipe and calculate the Cd for that instrument using formula.
7. Now close the valve and open valve of other diameter pipe and take the three reading for this.
8. Similarly take the reading for all other diameter pipe and calculate Cd for each.
OBSERVATIONS:-
Diameter of Venturimeter=
Area of cross section =
Venturimeter=
Area of collecting tank=
SR.NO
Discharge Manometer reading
Initial Final Difference Time Discharge H1 H2 H2-H1
h=
13.6(H2-H1
(cm.) (cm) (sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 10
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Keep the other valve closed while taking reading through one pipe.
2. The initial error in the manometer should be subtracted final reading.
3. The parallax error should be avoided.
4. Maintain a constant discharge for each reading.
5. The parallax error should be avoided while taking reading the manometer.
RESULT/ CONCLUSION:
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Venturimeter are used for flow measuring. How?
2. Define co efficient of discharge?
3. Define parallax error?
4. Define converging area part?
5. Define throat?
6. Define diverging part?
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
11. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 11
APPLICATION:
TO MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD FLOW IN VESSELS
The Venturi meter which has long been used in hydraulics is here applied to the measurement of
volume flow of blood through vessels. One method is by inserting an accurately calibrated
Venturi meter made of glass into the circulation. This method requires an anticoagulant, but is
accurate and sensitive to slight changes in flow. Another method is to produce a constriction in a
vessel by means of a ligature near a branch, which can be used as a side tube, thus transforming
the vessel itself into a Venturi meter. The latter method is subject to greater error in calibration
for absolute flows, but is sensitive for estimating slight changes in the rate of flow and does not
require the use of an anticoagulant.
12. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 12
Write Bernoulli’s Equation:
Figure: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup (DRAW BY PENCIL)
EXPERIMENT NO.
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
AIM:- To verify the Bernoulli’s theorem.
APPARATUS USED:- A supply tank of water, a tapered inclined pipe fitted with no. of
piezometer tubes point, measuring tank, scale, stop watch.
THEORY:- Bernoulli’s theorem states that when there is a continues connection between the
particle of flowing mass liquid, the total energy of any sector of flow will remain same provided
there is no reduction or addition at any point,
13. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 13
PROCEDURE:-
1. Open the inlet valve slowly and allow the water to flow from the supply tank.
2. Now adjust the flow to get a constant head in the supply tank to make flow in and out flow
equal.
3. Under this condition the pressure head will become constant in the piezometer tubes.
4. Note down the quantity of water collected in the measuring tank for a given interval of time.
5. Compute the area of cross-section under the piezometer tube.
6. Compute the area of cross-section under the tube.
7. Change the inlet and outlet supply and note the reading.
8. Take at least three readings as described in the above steps.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Reading of
Piezometric tubes
Area of cross
section under the
foot of each point
Velocity of
underfoot of each
point
V2
/2g
P/ρ
V2
/2g + P/ρ
14. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 14
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
RESULT:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Briefly explain the various terms involved in Bernoulli’s equation?
2. Assumption made to get Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation by made?
3. What is piezometer tube?
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
15. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 15
APPLICATION:
How does Bernoulli’s Principle apply to the cardiovascular system?
These are graphs which illustrate the cross-sectional area, velocity, and fluid pressure through
each vascular segment of the cardiovascular system. It makes sense that velocity and cross-
sectional area should be inversely related graphically (by the equation of
continuity, (V1A1=V2A2). However, Bernoulli’s principle states that where velocity is high,
pressure is low,
and vice versa.
However, in the
graph above,
clearly pressure
is decreasing as
you move away
from the aorta,
regardless of
velocity.
I can understand
how the pressure
in capillaries
will be higher
than those in
venules, since a
higher pressure
in capillaries
would accelerate
the blood as it
moves into the
venules with a
lesser total
cross-sectional
area. This agrees
graphically,
since, past the
purple stripe, the
pressure curve
decreases as the
velocity curve
rises. Yet the
mean arterial
pressure in the aorta and arteries seems to violate the relationship between velocity and pressure
stated in Bernoulli’s principle. What is there to make of this?
16. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 16
EXPERIMENT NO.
REYNOLDS NUMBER
AIM: - To find critical Reynolds number for a pipe flow.
APPARATUS USED: - Flow condition inlet supply, elliptical belt type arrangement for coloured
fluid with regulating valve, collecting tank.
FORMULA USED: - Reynolds No = Inertia force/Viscous force
THEORY:-
Figure: Reynold No. apparatus
Reynolds Number:- It is defined as ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the viscous force
of the fluid. The expression for
Reynolds number is obtained as:-
Inertia force (Fi) = mass . acceleration of flowing
= δ. Volume. Velocity/ time
= δ. +5*3L4
27L4Velocity
= δ.area .Velocity . Velocity
= δ.A .V2
17. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 17
Viscous force (Fv) = Shear stress . area
= τ. A
= μ. du/dy . A
= VA/τ
By definition Reynolds number:-
Re= Fi/Fu
= δAV2/μ/t.A
= V.L /μ/s
= V.L /v { v = μ/ ρis kinematics viscosity of the fluid } In case of pipe flow,
the linear dimension L is taken as dia (d) hence Reynolds number for pipe flow is :-
Re = V .d /v or
Re = ρVd /v
PROCEDURE:-
1. Fill the supply tank some times before the experiment.
2. The calculated fluid is filled as container.
3. Now set the discharge by using the valve of that particular flow can be obtained.
4. The type of flow of rate is glass tube is made to be known by opening the valve of dye
container.
5. Take the reading of discharge for particular flow.
6. Using the formula set the Reynolds no. for that particular flow, aspect the above procedure for
all remaining flow.
OBSERVATION:-
Type Time Discharge Q=m3
/3 Re=4Q/πΔV
initial Final Difference Volume
18. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 18
PRECAUTION:-
1. Take reading of discharge accurately.
2. Set the discharge value accurately for each flow.
RESULT:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Reynolds number importance?
2. Describe the Reynolds number experiments to demonstrate the two type of flow?
3. Define laminar flow, transition flow and turbulent flow?
APPLICATIONS:
Reynolds number plays an important part in the calculation of the friction factor in a few of the
equations of fluid mechanics, including the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
It is used when modeling the movement of organisms swimming through water.
Atmospheric air is considered to be a fluid. Hence, the Reynolds number can be calculated for it.
This makes it possible to apply it in wind tunnel testing to study the aerodynamic properties of
various surfaces.
It plays an important part in the testing of wind lift on aircraft, especially in cases of supersonic
flights where the high speed causes a localized increase in the density of air surrounding the
aircraft.
Thus, the Reynolds number, almost a century after its conception, still plays an important part in
the study of fluid mechanics. It has several applications, and it continues to be an irreplaceable
part of modern physics.
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
19. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 19
EXPERIMENT NO.
META-CENTRIC HEIGHT
AIM: - To determine the Meta-centric height of a floating body.
APPARATUS USED: - Take tank 2/3 full of water, floating vessel or pontoon fitted with a
pointed pointer moving on a graduated scale, with weights adjusted on a horizontal beam.
THEORY: -
Figure: Metacentric Height apparatus
Figure: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup (DRAW BY PENCIL)
20. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 20
Consider a floating body which is partially immersed in the liquid, when such a body is tilted, the
center of buoyancy shifts from its original position ‘B’ to ‘B’ (The point of application of
buoyanant force or upward force is known as center of G which may be below or above the center
of buoyancy remain same and couple acts on the body. Due to this couple the body remains
stable. At rest both the points G and B also Fb x Wc act through the same vertical line but in
opposite direction. For small change (θ) B shifted to B.
The point of intersection M of original vertical line through B and G with the new vertical, line
passing through ‘B’ is known as metacentre. The dis tance between G and M is known as
metacentre height which is measure of static stability.
FORMULA USED
Where: -
Wm is unbalanced mass or weight.
Wc is weight of pontoon or anybody.
Xd is the distance from the center of pointer to striper or unbalanced weight. θ is angle of tilt or
heel.
PROCEDURE: -
1. Note down the dimensions of the collecting tank, mass density of water.
2. Note down the water level when pontoon is outside the tank.
3. Note down the water level when pontoon is inside the tank and their difference.
4. Fix the strips at equal distance from the center.
5. Put the weight on one of the hanger which gives the unbalanced mass.
6. Take the reading of the distance from center and angle made by pointer on arc.
7. The procedure can be repeated for other positioned and values of unbalanced mass.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Length of the tank =
Width of the tank =
Area of the tank =
Initial level of the water without pontoon X1 =
Final level of the water with pontoon X2 =
Difference in height of water (X) = X2–X1=
21. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 21
Height of Difference Weight of Unbalanced ᶿ GM=Metacentric Xd (m)
water in in height pontoon massWm Height (m)
tank with X=X2-X1 Wc=XAρ Kg
pontoon X2
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. The reading taking carefully without parallax error.
2. Put the weight on the hanger one by one.
3. Wait for pontoon to be stable before taking readings.
4. Strips should be placed at equal distance from the centre.
RESULT:-
Meta centric height of the pontoon is measured with different positions and weights and value is
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Buoyancy?
2. Define Meta-centre?
3. Define Meta- centric height?
4. With respect to the position of metacentre?
5. State the condition of equilibrium for a floating body?
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
22. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 22
APPLICATIONS:
Metacentric height. This expression may be explained best by the following figures:
The ship is floating upright in still water
WL= Waterline.
G= Centre of gravity.
B= Centre of buoyancy of water displaced by the ship.
G & B are lying in the same vertical line amidships.
The ship is in equilibrium. The upthrust or buoyancy acting through B is equal to the weight of
the ship acting downward through G.
The ship has inclined to one side through external force and has a slight heel.
The position of G has not changed, assuming the cargo has not shifted.
B1= New position of centre of buoyancy. Owing to the change of the immersed part of the ship,
the position of B has shifted to the lower side (B1).
G and B are no longer lying to the same vertical plane amidships.
23. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 23
M= Metacentre, being the point of intersection of the perpendicular line drawn from B and the
plane amidships.
GM= Metacentric height. GZ = The “arm” or “lever” of the “couple” which has been formed.
The forces of upthrust (buoyancy) and downthrust (weight) are so disposed that there is a
tendency for the ship to return to the upright when the inclining force is removed. Hence the
vessel is “stable” and GZ is a “righting lever” or “righting arm”.
On an unstable vessel the position of G is higher, which may result from empty double bottom
tanks, stowage of cargo on deck, absorption of water in deck cargo, etc. Summarising, the centre
of gravity of ship, cargo, water, bunkers, stores and equipment must always be below the
metacentre.
The vessel will have:
1. Positive stability if the metacentre is above the centre of gravity.
2. Neutral stability if the metacentre coincides with the centre of gravity in which case there is no
righting lever to restore the original position.
3. Negative stability if the metacentre is below the centre of gravity with the risk of capsizing.
If the metacentric height is very large the vessel will be “stiff” and will roll in bad weather at
very short intervals, subjecting the ship to heavy strain, which may cause damage to the ship’s
structure, apart from the risk of shifting cargo through excessive rolling. If the vessel is inclined
as a result of unsymmetrical distribution of weight within the vessel she is said to have a “list”. In
this case G will not be in the amidships vertical plane. She may be perfectly stable, but will not
remain upright.
On the other hand, if the metacentric height is too small the ship will be “tender”. It will roll less
violently and may take a long time to return to the upright. This may also cause danger in heavy
weather, possibly because the cargo can shift because of the delay in returning to the upright
position.
24. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 24
EXPERIMENT NO.
MINOR LOSSES
AIM: - To determine the minor losses due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction and bend.
APPARATUS USED: - A flow circuit of G. I. pipes of different pipe fittings viz. Large bend,
Small bend, Elbow, Sudden enlargement from 25 mm dia to 50 mm dia, Sudden contraction from
50 mm dia to 25 mm dia, U-tube differential manometer, collecting tank.
THEORY: - Minor Losses:
The local or minor head losses are caused by certain local features or disturbances. The
disturbances may be caused in the size or shape of the pipe. This deformation affects the velocity
distribution and may result in eddy formation.
Sudden Enlargement:- Two pipe of cross-sectional area A1 and A2 flanged together with a
25. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 25
constant velocity fluid flowing from smaller diameter pipe. This flow breaks away from edges of
narrow edges section, eddies from and resulting turbulence cause dissipation of energy. The
initiations and onset of disturbances in turbulence is due to fluid momentum and its area.
It is given by:- h exit =V2/2g
Eddy loss:- Because the expansion loss is expended exclusively on eddy formation and continues
substance of rotational motion of fluid masses.
Sudden Contraction:- It represents a pipe line in which abrupt contraction occurs. Inspection of
the flow pattern reveals that it exists in two phases.
hcon = (Vc – V2) 2
/2g Where
Vc = velocity at vena contracta
Losses at bends, elbows and other fittings:-
The flow pattern regarding separation and eddying in region of separations in bends, valves. The
resulting head loss due to energy dissipation can be prescribed by the relation h = KV2/2g.
Where V is the average flow velocity and the resistance coefficient K depends on parameter
defining the geometry of the section and flow. Resistances of large sizes elbows can be reduced
appreciably by splitting the flow into a number of streams by a jet of guide vanes called
cascades.
PROCEDURE: -
1. Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter and length of pipe between the pressure
tapping, area of collecting tank etc.
2. Pressure tapping of a pipe a is kept open while for other pipe is closed.
3. The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount of steady
flow in the pipe.
4. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the left and
right limbs of manometer tube.
5. The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and the discharge & reading
of manometer are recorded.
6. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapping of this pipe, together with other
pipes and for opening of another pipe.
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
2. There in some water in collecting tank.
3. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
26. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 26
OBSERVATION:-
Diameter of pipe D =
Length of pipe between pressure tapping L =
Area of collecting tank =
Types of the fitting =
SR.
NO
Manometer reading Discharge measurement
Coefficient
of loss K=
2g/V2hL
Left
Limb
Right
Limb
Difference of had
in terms of water
head hf = 13.6 Initial final time Discharge
h1 h2 (h2-h1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
RESULT:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define hydraulic gradient and total energy lines?
2. Define eddy loss?
3. Define sudden contraction?
4. Define sudden enlargement?
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)
27. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 27
EXPERIMENT NO.
STUDY OF VISCOSITY
AIM: - To study Viscosity, Velocity & Pressure measuring device.
THEORY: -
Viscosity measuring device:-
1. Capillary tube
2. Viscometer.
Capillary tube: - Poiseiulle showed that the volume (v) of a liquid or gas flowing per second
through a horizontal capillary tube of a given radius length (L) under a constant difference of
pressure ( P) between two ends is inversely proportional to the viscosity of fluid. The volume of
fluid through the f tube in t is given by
The lesser the volume of flowing fluid through the tube per unit time, the larger the viscosity.
Viscometer: - It is an instrument to measure the viscosity. It measures some quantity which is a
function of viscosity. The quantity measured is usually time taken to pass certain volume of the
liquid through an orifice fluid at the bottom of the viscometer. The temperature of liquid, while it
is being passed through the orifice should be maintained constant. Some viscometer is used are
say bolt universally, redwood, Engler viscometer which has a vertical tube. The times in second
to pass 60cc of fluid liquid for the determination of viscosity is “say bolt second”.
The following empirical relations are used to determine kinematics viscosity in stokes:-
28. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 28
A) Say bolt universal viscometer
B) Red wood viscometer
C) Engler viscometer
Velocity measuring device:- Rota Meter.
CONSTRUCTION: -
A Rota meter is a device to find the velocity of a flow in a pipe with the aid of rotating free float.
It is essentially an orifice meter with fixed pressure drop and variable orifice area. Fluid is
allowed to flow vertically upward through a tapered transparent tube placed vertically with a large
end at the top. The float is freely suspended upside the tube. The maximum diameter of float is
slightly less than the minimum bore. There are two L-bend lies on the inlet and outlet of the tube.
Guide wire for float is calibrated at the centre of the tapered tube. The outlet portion for fluid
generally is less than the inlet portion. The tapered tube is generally having the glass covering on
the part of taking the reading of the float
WORKING: -
When there is no flow, float rests at bottom, but fluid when some velocity float has rises upward
to make way for fluid motion. The float rises to such a position that the pressure loss across the
amuler orifice just balances to the weight of the float mechanism which is attached to it. The float
therefore attains a state of equilibrium and the distance from the stop to float is a measure of the
discharge in liter/second. The float is provided with slantwise slots to enable it to occupy a stable
position at the center of tube.
Pressure measuring device:-
A) Dead weight piston gauge
B) Mechanical gauge
A) Dead weight piston gauge:- This is the direct method for precise determination to of a piston
steady pressure measurement. The instrument consists of a piston & a cylinder of known area
connected to a fluid pressure on the piston equal to the pressure times the piston area. This force
can be balanced by weight fitted on the top of the vertical piston. This is the most accurate device
and used for precision and for calibrating other pressure gauge. The pressure of liquid is balanced
by known weight. Pressure in Kgf/cm2 or KN/m2
B) Mechanical gauge:- By the help of spring or dead weight balanced the liquid column whose
pressure is to be measured. In gauge are the liquid exert the force on a movable diaphragm or
29. NHITM, THANE/MECH/FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL/AY 2019-20 Page 29
piston, which is the resisted by a spring of known valve. The intensity of pressure then would be
equal to the force F divided by the area a of the diaphragm or piston P =F/a They are suited for
the measurement of high pressure when it is more then to atmospheres. The most accurate and
reliable region on the scale of mechanical gauge in between 40% & 70% of the maximum may
give direct pressure reading, portability and wider operating gauge. They can fairly accurate
reading if properly calibrated.
1 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
2 Diaphragm pressure gauge
3 Dead weight pressure gauge
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1 Define and explain the Newton’s law of viscosity?
2 Define construction of bourdon tube pressure gauge?
3 Define construction of Rotameter?
4 What is meant by calibration?
5 Which type of fluid is used in bourdon tube pressure gauge?
Evaluation Criteria Marks
Signature of
Instructor with Date
Lab Performance
Topic Knowledge
Task Conclusion
Attainment Level (Out of 3)