Final year project3

Academic Year 2013/14
Final Year Project
Code-switching (Cantonese
– English) in Hong Kong TV
Programs
Student Number: 714538
Project Tutor: Marie McCullagh
April, 2014
University of Portsmouth
BA (HONS) Communication and English Studies
Word Count: 5,416 words

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Declaration
I hereby declare that this Independent Project is substantially my own work
and that all relevant attributions have been made.
X
Chan Hoi Ching

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Abstract
This paper investigate the relationship between the code-switching used in
daily life and the code-switching appeared in the TV programs in Hong Kong. Bilingual
Cantonese-English code-switching has been a common phenomenon in Hong Kong for
decades. The phenomenon of code-switching in Hong Kong spread very fast that not
just appear in daily conversation, but also in some formal meetings or discussions. One
of the main reasons perhaps because of the influences of the TV programs. Whereas
most of the previous studies have focused on the motivations and patterns of code-
switching in Hong Kong, there is a lack of research on the influences of TV programs
to Hongkongese language attitude. This paper aims to put the light on the motivations
of Hongkongese bilingual code-swithcing and the influences of the TV programs to
Hongkongese language habits in terms of code-switching, through questionnaire to
collect data from local Hong Kong people.
Results showed that the most popular motivations of Hongkongese may use
code-switching to show solidarity, social status and avoid some embarrassments.
Moreover, the influence of TV programs in Hong Kong seems to be greater and greater.
Because of the frequency of code-switching appear in TV programs so high, some of
Hongkongese may has been changed their language habit or re-shaped their language
attitude. Some of them might even follow what the actors said in terms of code-
switching phrases and sentences in TV programs. In addition, this phenomenon seems
to develop another bigger problem that Hongkongese language ability are decreasing,
they seems cannot say a popper Cantonese or English and pure Cantonese or English
in one complete sentences.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Topics Page no.
Declaration II
Abstract III
1. INTRODUCTION 1 – 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4 - 13
2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Different definition of code-switching 4 - 5
2.3 Motivations 5 - 8
2.3.1 To show solidarity
2.3.2 To show social status
2.3.3 To discuss a topic
2.3.4 To express feelings and affection
2.3.5 To persuade audience
2.4 Code-switching in Hong Kong 8 - 10
2.4.1 Background of language use in Hong Kong
2.4.2 Attitudes towards code-switching in Hong Kong
2.5 Code-switching in TV programs 10 - 12
2.6 Conclusion 12 - 13
3. METHODOLOGY 14
3.1 Introduction 14
3.2 Participants 14
3.3 Data collection procedures 14
3.4 Study design and instruments 14
3.5 Limitation of the study 14
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 15-24
4.1 Section 1: Motivations for using code-switching 15 - 18
4.2 Section 2: Influences of TV programs 19 - 22
4.3 Section 3: Basic Information 23
4.4 Conclusion 24
5. CONCLUSION 25 – 27
6. LIST OF REFERENCES 28 – 29
7. APPENDICES - QUESTIONNAIRE 30
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 31 - 32

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Chapter 1 Introduction
In many countries, there are some cities or areas are multilingual society,
which means people living there can speak in two or more language for
communication, including written or spoken language. One of the most famous
multilingual societies is Hong Kong.
“As a natural result of language interaction for over a hundred years, it has become
part of the culture for bilingual Hong Kong people to code-mix English into their daily
Cantonese conversations.” (Yen, 2009)
In Hong Kong, it is very easy and common to hear Cantonese - English code-
switching, from the street of the town, from the markets to the meeting rooms of
company’s office. Hong Kong people, no matter who they are, what they are doing,
where they are and when, they would also like to use code-switching to have
conversation. Some of them think that it can show higher classes than others, some
of them think that it is more convenient to express their meaning. No matter why,
Cantonese- English code-switching is already part of Hong Kong culture.
Although Hong Kong is a multilingual society, Chinese are the major ethnic
group (Luke, 1992; Tsui et al., 1999; So, 2000, P.3-34; Ho and Ho, 2004, P.400-412). In
Hong Kong, extremely large numbers of people speak in Cantonese as the mother
tongue, but English is used by 41.8% of the population, showing the British colony
city’s heritage.
Language Usual language Another language
Cantonese 90.8% 5.7%
English 2.8% 41.8%
Mandarin 0.9% 39.2%
Table 1 Percentage of Hong Kong population aged 5 and above with Cantonese,
English or Mandarin as their ‘usual language’ and ‘another language’
Source: Hong Kong 2006 Population By-census Main Report Volume I (2007), Table
3.12, p.44.

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Code-switching is a typical and universally known feature of the spoken
language in Hong Kong, like, “the juxtaposition of passages of speech belonging to two
different grammatical systems or sub-systems, within the same exchange” (Gumperz,
1977, P.1). According to Myers Scotton’s (1993, P.127) Matrix Language-Frame model,
the matrix language can be seen as the mother tongue of the speaker or the
morphemes or words of the language which are more frequently used in speech.
Particularly, in the situation of Hong Kong, Cantonese and English are the main two
grammatical systems. Cantonese act as the ‘matrix language’, and English act as the
‘embedded language’, appearing in the sentences of Cantonese with segments of
English, such as
去 canteen 飲茶
heoi3 canteen jam2 caa4
‘Let’s go to the canteen for lunch’
(Gibbons, 1979, P.114)
This is a very common example for Hong Kong people to use code-switching in
their daily life. In this example, ‘canteen’ as the only one word of the English segment
in this Cantonese sentence, however, it can be an entire clause independently.
Although code-switching is very common in Hong Kong, Hong Kong people have
different opinions on it. Some supporters think that using code-switching is cool,
higher classes and convenient, but some of them against think that it is corrupting the
pure language and its culture; also it is not a correct language to use.
The use of code-switching in Hong Kong become more and more common, not
just using in daily conversation, but also in some formal meetings .One of the reasons
of this phenomenon may because of the influences of the television programs. Apart
from the news, many aspects of television programs use code-switching a lot, such as
soap operas and even some formal ceremonies. Some people may be influenced,
some people may resist. So it is worth to investigate the relationship between the
effect of television programs and motivations of using code-switching.

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Therefore, my research question is “Why do Hong Kong people use code-
switching in daily life and how is code-switching in TV programs related to code-
switching in daily conversation?”
In this research, four chapters will be divided. In Chapter 2, some previous
research will be looked at on the definitions of code-switching, motivations of using it,
and also the situation of code-switching in Hong Kong and the in the Hong Kong TV
programs. In Chapter 3, methodology of my research will be described. In Chapter 4,
the data collected in the questionnaires will be analysed, and use some chart, figures,
and tables to show the result clearly. After that, the result will be discussed. In Chapter
5, a conclusion of whole project will be drawn including literature review,
methodology and data and analysis. Furthermore, the questionnaire will be shown in
the Chapter 7 appendices.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
There are already many studies about the code-switching, however, it will
change as time goes by and the society development, so, the code-switching is still
keep on growing and changing in many various places. Depends on places, people and
medias, code-switching have different explanation, reasons of usage and spreading
ways. Some of them may similar; some of them may totally different. So, the aim of
this literature review is going to investigate the differences of code-switching in very
general view and then comparing with the more specific view of Hong Kong, which is
a well-known bilingual city, in terms of definition and motivations. Beside, this
literature review is going to find out the effect of code-switching in TV generally and
the TV programs in Hong Kong.
This literature review will first look at different definition of code-switching
suggested by some sociolinguists and linguists, and the motivations of using code-
switching. Then, this literature review will be more specific to look at the code-
switching development in Hong Kong. Because of the topic is investigating the effects
of spreading code-switching through television, so this literature review will also look
at the books and research papers which are talking about both the code-switching in
TV and the situation of code-switching in Hong Kong TV programs.
2.2 Different definition of code-switching
In general, Code-switching means a speaker changes from one code to another
code intentionally or unintentionally. There are many different ways to change,
including from one style to another, one dialect to another or one language to another,
due to lots of various motivations and reasons, which will discuss about in the later
part.

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From Sociolinguists point of view, if a bilingual teacher is using two different
code and shifting both codes in utterances to try to elaborate or explain some main
points to student, this can be definite as code-switching. However, Joan Swann and
Indra Sinka point out that, “definitions of code-switching vary” (Swann & Sinka, 2007,
P.242). So, in the following part, this literature review will introduce several definitions
which were made by different sociolinguists.
The famous linguist, John J. Gumperz, defines “code-switching” in his book
Discourse Strategy as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages
of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems, within the
same exchange” (Gumperz, 2012) which mentioned in the introduction of this project.
Moreover, he added “as when a speaker uses a second language either to reiterate
his message or to reply to someone else's statement” (Gumperz, 2012).
One well-known sociolinguist, Kathryn Woolard, made another definition of
code-switching as “the investigation of an individual’s use of two or more language
varieties in the same speech event or exchange” (Woolard, 2004, P.73). In this
definition, it is talking about code-switching occurs within the same single utterance,
which is slightly different with the Gumperz’s one.
Another famous sociolinguist, Janet Holmes, has another point of view of code-
switching in terms of lexical borrowing. “The results of lack of a lexical term in the
speaker’s repertoire while in code-switching” (Holmes, 2013, P.34). In addition, as
Holmes says, “speakers have a genuine choice about which words or phrases they will
use in which language” (Holmes, 2013, P.34). It means that a speaker shift codes freely
by changing plenty of lexical words and phrases in various environment and for various
motivations or reasons.
2.3 Motivations
This part will discuss the motivations of why people switch codes. Speakers
may switch codes because of five major reasons, which are “to show solidarity with a
social or ethnic group”,” to show social status in a community”,” to discuss a specific
topic”, “to express affections and feelings”, and “to persuade and impress the
audience” (Rihane, 2012, P.5).

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2.3.1 To show solidarity
In the book Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Janet Holmes mentions that “a
speaker may switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared
ethnicity within an addressee” (Holmes, 2013, P.45). Code-switching can be used to
show solidarity when talking with people from different or same social or ethnic
groups. A very good example provided by Roger Hewitt to explain this motivation as
two young boys talking with the same Jamaican Creole, who from two different
ethnicities.
White boy: Oh, Royston, ya goin' football on Saturday?
Black boy: Mi na go football! Who for?
White boy: Check some gyal later.
Black boy: Na. Mi na wan check gyal now.
White boy: Rassclaht! Fink ya bent
(Hewitt, 1986)
According to Maybin says, “Cut through the barrier between the local black
and white communities; to establish solidarity” (Maybin, 2002, P.26). That’s the
reason why the white boy would like to use the Creole of the black Jamaican boy in
this example.
2.3.2 To show social status
In our daily life, speakers would like to imply their social classes or social status
by using different codes in a single utterance, like Shabt’s point “Other reasons that
have been found to motivate CS are to sound elitist or classy” (Shabt, 2007). Moreover,
Professor Peter Auer, the author of the book Code-Switching in Conversation:
Language, Interaction and Identity mentions that “Code-switching carries a hidden
prestige which is made explicit by attitudes” (Auer, 2002). On the other hand, Dr Hayat
Al Khatib conducted a research in 2003 and points out that the speakers would like to
use code-switching to “show power over the less powerful” (Al-Khatib, 2003, P.409).
As Yasir Suleiman says that, “the phenomenon of CS is very common and is looked

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upon as something prestigious and a sign of education and competence in more than
one language” (Suleiman, 1999). In order that, based on the above research and
literature, a summary can be made that code-switching is related to the social status
or classes, which people would like to use code-switching to reflect one’s social status
or classes. People can use two or more codes competently imply that they are well-
educated, so, it is another way to distinguish oneself to the others.
2.3.3 To discuss a topic
For bilingual speakers, topic seems to be another serious motivation to use
code-switching. When Janet Holmes talks about the topic of code-switching, she
mentions that “people may switch code within a speech event to discuss a particular
topic” (Holmes, 2013, P.46). Clearly, this shows that speakers may tend to speak in at
least two languages in one same utterance in some specific topics.
“Taboo words and topics are often codes-witched so as to avoid to be
expressed in the speaker’s native language” (Leung, 2006). There is a good example
from the Lebanese society. In the Lebanese society, it is easier to discuss emotional
and sexual topics in a language that is totally different with the native Arabic language,
for example, English or French. For Lebanese, these kind of topics are labelled as
“taboos”, it makes them feel more relax and comfortable to talk about these “taboos”
with a totally different language with their community’s one.
Another good study is made by Hamdan G. Al Shalawi from Arizona State
University and Khalid M. Abalhassan from the University of Indiana. They asked one
question to twelve bilingual Saudi student which is “why did you code-switch to
English language?” Although the answers from those twelve students are different,
but Abalhassan and Shalawi state that one student’s answer get their attention, the
student said “I can’t say taboo words in Arabic” (Abalhassan & Al Shalawi, 2000, P.180).
2.3.4 To express feelings and affection
Sometimes, speakers use code-switching to express some feelings or point of
views, such as gladness, nervous, sadness, irritation and many other affections. “A
language switch is often used to express disapproval” Janet Holmes says. In other that,

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a person may switch code to express their anger. She gives a good case study to
discuss about expressing feelings by code-switching.
In the town of Oberwart two little Hungarian-speaking children were playing in the
woodshed and knocked over a carefully stacked pile of firewood. Their grandfather
walked in and said in Hungarian.
“Szo! ide dzuni! jeszt jeramunyi mind e kettutoko, no hat akkor!”
[Well Come Here! Put All This Away, Both of You, Well Now.]
When they did not respond quickly enough he switched to German:
“Kum her!”
[Come Here]
(Holmes, 2013, P.48)
In this case, the Grandfather use more than one languages, which are
Hungarian and German. He switched from Hungarian to German to express his angry
and straight attitudes towards the children’s behaviour.
2.3.5 To persuade audience
Janet Holmes mentions the term “metaphorical switching” in her book and
defines it as “code-switching for rhetorical reasons” (Holmes, 2013, P.50). For getting
attraction or persuading audiences, speaker’s speech or rhetoric may use code-
switching to achieve these purposes. Adina Nerghes agrees that code-switching has
the power to draw the audience’s attention and make the speech become more
persuasive by saying “code-switching will draw the participant's attention and will
enhance their motivation to carefully scrutinize the message presented” (Nerghes,
2011).
In rhetoric and persuasion, speakers using code-switching seems easier to
achieve their goal, and to persuade their audience via drawing audience’s attention.
Also, as mentioned before, in section 2.3.2, code-switching reflecting a higher social
class, which can also make the speeches or the speakers seems like more reliable and
believable. All these findings are matched to the conclusion that Nerghes makes in her

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study that “code-switching is an effective strategy that leads to systematic processing
of information especially when associated with strong arguments” (Nerghes, 2011).
2.4 Code-switching in Hong Kong
2.4.1 Background of language use in Hong Kong
According to the history, Hong Kong has been governed by Britain as a colonial
port for a century. Under the British government, English become Hong Kong official
language. This policy made a large number of Hong Kong people start to learn English,
for working or studying purpose. Although most of Hong Kong people speak in
Cantonese, which is their mother language, English is widely spoken among Hong Kong
people.
Base on this special background, the schools in Hong Kong prefer to use
English-medium education in the classes for developing student a good English
standard. Li, as a famous linguist in Hong Kong, he studied about the effect of using
code-switching inside and outside the classroom and its reasons. In this case, he states
that “Thanks to the nine-year compulsory education policy since 1978, Chinese
Hongkongers have developed basic literacy skills in English. When conversing with one
another in Cantonese, therefore, English is a useful additional linguistics resource for
meaning-making.” (Li, 2012 P.83)
As said before, Hong Kong people even feel difficult to use pure Cantonese to
express feeling. This time, Li comments on this by saying that “One important factor
is the ‘medium-of learning effect’” (Li, 2012, P.1), which means using code-switching
in the classes is the main reason why switching code is so hard to avoid.
However, not every student can understand the English content at all. So,
some bilingual teachers start to use some Cantonese to explain to Hong Kong students
for a better understanding. Li points out that there are three main situations to use
code-switching, they are “(a) help clarify difficult concept; (b) help introduce or
consolidate students’ bilingual lexicon; (c) help build rapport by reducing social
distance” (Li, 2012, P.84)

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In the end of Li’s study, he refer to many studies made by other linguists to
sum up that using code-switching in classroom have pedagogical merits, “Used
judiciously in classroom settings, switching to English in the middle of Cantonese
instruction, or switching to Cantonese while teaching in English may potentially have
pedagogical merits” (Li, 2012, P.84)
2.4.2 Attitudes towards code-switching in Hong Kong
As stated in the introduction, code-switching can be found in everywhere in
Hong Kong, from the street to the classroom, from youth to elderly, from daily
conversation to advertisements. Some of the Hong Kong people even found that it is
hard to express some specific terms or phrases in Cantonese. This situation even
surprising some linguistics professors from western countries, Ingrid Piller is one of
them. In 2012, she watched a film called Multilingual Hong Kong and she found out
the real situation. She mentions that “All too soon it becomes clear to the viewer that
the interviewees have a hard time using ‘pure’ Cantonese, i.e. saying the
sentence without resorting to English loanwords for ‘present’ and, particularly,
‘project.’” (Piller, 2012)
Although most of Hong Kong people don’t think Cantonese-English code-
switching is a good use of language, they still can’t change their habit to switch code
in their conversation. She adds that “However, when asked what they think of code-
switching a fair number of them say that it’s bad, that it’s a sign of laziness, that it’s
disgusting or that it’s a sign that a person cannot speak proper Cantonese nor proper
English.” (Piller, 2012)
Moreover, she also gives some examples from the film which proves code-
switching can show the solidarity and expression of feeling, to support the literature
review in the motivation part. She says “Other interviewees, however, celebrate their
code-switching and code-mixing and say it’s an expression of their Hong Kong identity.
One interviewee even says that mixing Cantonese and English increases her levels of
happiness!” (Piller, 2012)
One of the interviewees sums up code-switching as “mixing Cantonese and
English is like wearing jade jewellery with foreign clothes” (Piller, 2012) It means that

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Hong Kong people think that it is a higher class behaviour of using code-switching,
which can respond to show social status that discussed in the motivation part.
2.5 Code-switching in TV programs
As we all know, mass media always representing the social life of the society,
especially in the drama of the television.
Mao-chin Chiu, who come from Taiwan and have a study on the code-switching
and identity constructions in Taiwan TV commercials.
To the influence of mass media, she claims that “Mass media is a mirror of
society, and language codes used by protagonists representing distinct social classes
can be associated with language attitude held by different classes in the real speech
community.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28)
Mass media not only representing the real life in the community, it may also
influence or even re-shapes the attitudes of the audiences, including their habits,
behaviours and the use of languages. She mentions that “Codes used by stereotypical
Elite (a class of persons or a member of such a group, enjoying superior intellectual,
social, or economic status) and Non-Elite (common, ordinary images) might further
influence and even re-shape the audience’s language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28) This
conclusion matches the motivation of suggested by Rihane which can persuade
audience by code-switching in mass media.
However, Chiu and Rihane’s researches are too general and not specific
enough to the Hong Kong’s TV programs situation, but John Lee’s research do. Lee is
a professor comes from City University of Hong Kong, he did a research in 2012 of
investigating “the motivations behind the use of mixed code, on the basis of a large
dataset of speech transcribed from television programs broadcast in Hong Kong within
the last four years by Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB)” (Lee, 2012, P.165), the
programs are two drama series, three current-affairs shows, a news program, and a
talk show.
In his research, he points out that there are four main motivations shown in
the TV programs to use code-switching, but not pure Cantonese or English “A key

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finding is that four main motivations –‘register’, ‘personal name’, ‘principle of
economy’, and ‘specificity’ --- account for more than 95% of the embedded English
segments.” (Lee, 2012, P.167)
Register means that the speaker cannot find any equal ‘low Cantonese’ word,
but feel strange to use ‘high Cantonese’ word like 派對paai1 deoi3 (party), so s/he will
use the English term instead. Lee gives an example of this:
開始喇我地個 party
hoi1 ci2 laa1 ngo5 dei6 go3 party
‘Our party is starting’
(Lee, 2012, P.167)
Then, personal name means Hong Kong people like to call someone’s English
name instead of Chinese name, because it seems friendly and to show a closer
relationship. Lee gives an example:
Teresa, 我地整得靚唔靚?
Teresa ngo5 dei6 zing2 dak1 leng3 m4 leng3
‘Teresa, did we make it nicely?’
(Lee, 2012, P.167)
Moreover, principle of economy means the equivalent English terms or words
are shorter or easier to use than Cantonese/Chinese. The example he provides is the
world ‘check-in’ (two syllables) compare to its Cantonese equivalent 辨理入境手續
baan6 lei5 dang1 gei1 sau2 zuk6 (six syllables).
你 check-in 左未呀?
nei5 check-in zo2 mei6 aa3
‘Have you checked in already?’
(Lee, 2012, P.166)

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Finally, specificity means using a more general or specific expression of English
instead of low or high Cantonese. For example, the words ‘book’ means “to make a
reservation for which no money or deposit is required” (Lee, 2012, P.166).
我想 book 三點。
ngo5 soeng2 book saam1 dim2
‘I want to book 3 o’clock’
(Lee, 2012, P.166)
By comparing the motivations of using code-switching suggested by Rihane
and Lee, some of them are similar, but some of them are not. For example, Rihane
suggests that people will use code-switching because of the topic, which is similar to
Lee’s register. It is because Rihane’s one is more general world-wide motivation, but
Lee’s one is more specific to Hong Kong people habits.
2.6 Conclusion
In conclusion, there are many different definitions made by different
sociolinguists with the flow of time, however, this project will follow the Janet Holmes’
definition because it is the most updated. Moreover, according to Rihane, motivations
can be concluded by five major reasons, they are “to show solidarity with a social or
ethnic group”,” to show social status in a community”,” to discuss a specific topic”, “to
express affections and feelings”, and “to persuade and impress the audience”. But it
is too general to the topic area, which is “Hong Kong TV programs”, so John Lee’s
motivations will be mainly considered, which are ‘register’, ‘personal name’, ‘principle
of economy’, and ‘specificity’. In addition, based on Professor Chiu saying, the mass
media like TV programs, are powerful that can “re-shape” the audiences attitude,
including the language habits, to support the TV programs may influence the audience.
Also, the literature review talked about the language background of Hong Kong and
how Hong Kong becomes a bilingual society at the end.

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Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
As mentioned in the literature review, the motivations of using code-switching are
slightly different in various cities. So, this questionnaire will focus on the motivations of code-
switching in Hong Kong. Moreover, as Professor Chiu said that, the mass media can influences
the audiences, so the influences of Hong Kong TV programs will be another focus point in this
research, which is more specific to Hong Kong situation rather than global situation.
3.2 Participants
To be more objective, in this research, 20 participants who come from Hong Kong are
randomly selected in the internet to participate.
3.3 Data collection procedures
The researcher obtained verbal approval from the participants. The questionnaire
administer to the participants after a brief introduction. The whole data collection was
completed online. The complete survey is provided in Appendix.
3.4 Study design and instruments
The questionnaire separate in three parts. The first part is asking about the
motivations of using code-switching, the questions are based on the factors suggested by

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Rihane. It is because this study wants to investigate Honkongese motivations of using code-
switching in an objective way, so it is better to use a general standard rather than a local
standard suggested by Lee. The second part of the questionnaires is investigating the
influences of Hong Kong TV programs. However, there are no references can be refer to set
the questions, so the questions are mainly based on my own experiences. The third part will
be the interviewees’ basic information for reference.
3.5 Limitation of the study
The sample size of the study is small, which is limited to only twenty people. This study
limits the degree of generalization, which the results of the study may suit the target place
only, Hong Kong. Moreover, since the theme of the research limits to the English – Cantonese
code-switching, so some other codes are not suitable like Putonghua - Cantonese code-
switching.
Chapter 4 Data analysis and discussion
Professor Chiu has said that the media can re-shape the audiences’ attitudes
toward language. (Chiu, 2012, P.28) Therefore, this survey is going to explore the
influence of code-switching in TV programs on code-switching in Hongkongese daily
conversation. In this survey, 20 Hongkongese participated and completed the
questionnaire. The results will be shown below.
4.1 Section 1: Motivations for using code-switching

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Figure 4.1 The relationship between code-switching, social status and solidarity
As the figure 4.1 shows, all interviewees tend to use code-switching to chat
with friends. 75% of interviewees generally use code-switching to talk to their parents.
The percentage of those using code-switching to talk to Relatives and the elderly is
much lower than those who will code-switch when talking with “Friends” and
“Parents”. 70% of interviewees usually do not use code-switching with relatives and
90% of interviewees usually do not use code-switching when talking with the elderly.
There is a slight difference of 20% in “Others”.
The results show that Hongkongese prefer to use code-switching with friends
and their parents, but not relatives and the elderlies. As the interviewees said, friends
are in the same class with them, so it is a relaxed atmosphere in which to use code-
switching. Also, they think that using code-switching is a mark of group membership.
As regards Parents, most of interviewees think that it is acceptable to use code-
switching because they have a close and good relationship. However, the rest of the
interviewees thought that it is impolite to use code-switching to talk to parents
because of the difference in social status. This is the same reason, which interviewees
did not like to use code-switching to talk with relatives. As regards the elderly, respect
and politeness are two of interviewees considerations, the third being education level.
Interviewees think most of the elderly people in Hong Kong don’t understand English.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Friends Parents Relatives Elderlies Others (like
teachers,
colleagues and
manager)
100%
75%
30%
10%
60%
0%
15%
70%
90%
40%
Q.1 WHO YOU TALK TO WILL USE
CODE-SWITCHING?
Yes No

XXI | P a g e
As well at this, interviewees think that using pure Cantonese to talk with the elderly
can show that they are part of the same language group, which can make the elderly
feel more comfortable. For the others, interviewees give some examples like teachers
and colleagues, whom they will use code-switching to talk to because they have a good,
friendly relationship. However, they will not use it when talking to managers, because
they have a higher social status.
To sum up, these results demonstrate how the use of code-switching is related
to solidarity, social status and level of education. From my point of view, interviewees
use code-switching with their friends because they are in the same “membership
group” (Holmes, 2013, P.45) and have the “same social class” (Shabt, 2007). However,
they will not use it when talking with relatives and the elderly perhaps because
relatives and the elderly often use pure Cantonese, and so they have to use pure
Cantonese to demonstrate a “shared ethnicity within an addressee” (Holmes, 2013,
P.45). And also, relatives and elderlies have a higher social class. The results also show
that the relationship between speakers and audiences and also the “education level”
(Suleiman, 1999) are of consideration when using code-switching.
Figure 4.2 The function of using code-switching
In figure 4.2, 80% of interviewees expressed a preference for using code-
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Q.2 Talking taboos Q.3 Express feelings Q.4 Persuade someone
80%
40%
15%
20%
60%
85%
Q.2 - 4 WHEN WILL YOU USE CODE-
SWITCHING WHEN YOU ARE......
Yes No

XXII | P a g e
switching to talk about societal taboos. It is also a big trend for interviewees (85%) to
refuse to use code-switching when they want to persuade someone. Also, when
interviewees want to express their feelings, they prefer to use pure Cantonese,
although those using code-switching is slightly higher at 20%.
80% of interviewees think that using some English terms to talk about taboos
can make the conversation more relaxed and comfortable. When using pure
Cantonese, to discuss taboos they can feel uncomfortable and embarrassed. Though
there are huge differences between using code-switching and pure Cantonese,
supporters of Cantonese think that it is just the psychological effects of using code-
switching to be less embarrassed. These results are reinforced by Leung, who
expressed the view, that code-switching can often be used to avoid embarrassment
(Leung, 2006).
However, it is not the same situation with question 3, which is a half-half score.
40% interviewees think that code-switching is already part of their habitual language
use, so they use code-switching very naturally, but do not purposefully use code-
switching to express their emotions. For the rest 60% of interviewees think that it is
easier to express their emotion and feelings by using their mother language, which is
Cantonese. In this case, this is slightly different than Holmes’ example.
As mentioned in the literature review, Holmes states that code-switching has
rhetorical function to persuade someone (Holmes, 2013, P.50). In contrast, it is not
the same case this time. Interviewees think that using pure Cantonese to persuade
someone is easier because this is their mother language, which they are more familiar
with. Only 15% interviewees say that they feel more comfortable to switch code when
persuading someone.
In conclusion, the results show that Hongkongese usually use code-switching
to avoid embarrassment when talking about societal taboos, but not to express
feelings or persuade someone. In my opinion, it might be because English represents
western thought, which is more open than Chinese thought represented through the
use of Cantonese. However, Cantonese is Hongkongese mother language, so it is more
convenient and easier to use Cantonese to express feelings and engage in persuasion.

XXIII | P a g e
4.2 Section 2: Influences of TV programs
Figure 4.3 The frequency of code-switching appear in the TV programs
According to the figure 4.3, the majority of Hongkongese think that the
frequency of code-switching in the TV programs in Hong Kong is “acceptable” (80%),
whereas 20% believed that code-switching was used “too much.
80%
20%
Q.5 Do you think code-switching in the TV
programs in Hong Kong are too often?
Acceptable
Too much

XXIV | P a g e
Base on the information provided from the interviewees who think it is
acceptable, the language used in on-screen conversations is similar to daily
conversation, the interviewees expressed the view that the frequency of code-
switching reliably represented every day conversation. A small group of Hongkongese
thinks that code-switching is too commonly used on-screen, because, they believe,
the language ability of children and teenagers may be influenced by these TV
programs.
In conclusion, in my point of view, this result matches Professor Chiu saying
that the mass media is like a “mirror of society” (Chiu, 2012, P.28), Hongkongese use
code-switching in daily conversation, so they think that it is normal to hear code-
switching in TV programs. However, the small group of interviewees’ worry is
reasonable. As Piller has found that the average Hongkongese find it difficult to speak
in pure Cantonese (Piller, 2012), and so code-switching represents a down grading of
Cantonese language ability.
Figure 4.4 The interruption of code-switching in TV programs
In question 6, all interviewees think that the Code-switching will not interrupt their
understanding of the programs.
Why? It is because code-switching is already habitually used. Interviewees
stated that they started to learn English when they were studying kindergarten, and
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
100%
Q.6 DO YOU THINK CODE-SWITCHING IN
THE TV PROGRAMS IN HONG KONG WILL
INTERRUPT YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE
PROGRAMS?
Yes No

XXV | P a g e
then keep learning English in secondary and also tertiary school, they have achieved
good ability in English, so it is not a problem to understand the English in TV programs,
even though it is commonly a mix of English and Cantonese.
In my opinion, this situation may be explained by Li’s research, “nine-year
compulsory education policy” (Li, 2012 P.83) and the “medium-of learning effect” (Li,
2012, P.1) has developed a very good English base for many Hongkongese.
Figure 4.5 The influences of media and TV programs
In question 7, 80% of interviewees stated they use code-switching similarly to
the way actors on television often do and 20% of interviewees will not. Those 80% of
people said that they are not following those actors on purpose, but do so
unintentionally. The rest of interviewees think that this is childish behavior.
In my point of view, these results may show the increasing power of media and
the influence of TV programs, which can “re-shape audiences’ language attitude”
(Chiu, 2012, P.28).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
80%
20%
Q.7 DO YOU USE CODE-SWITCHING IN YOUR
DAILY CONVERSATION LIKETHE ACTORS DO?
Yes
No

XXVI | P a g e
Figure 4.6 Hongkongese attitudes towards code-switching in TV programs
How about Hongkongese attitude towards code-switching? Figure 4.6 shows
that more than half of people think it is neutral. However, there is an interesting
finding that although many Hongkongese use code-switching in daily life, they think it
is a negative development. The interviewees’ reasons are the same as those given by
Piller’s research.
Those who think it is negative said that using code-switching may affect their
writing skills in both Chinese and English. In my opinion, it is a sign of lower language
ability, implying that they “cannot speak in either proper Cantonese or English” (Piller,
2012).
Sometimes, using code-switching is “act like” cool but not really cool at all, like
Piller’s research states that “mixing Cantonese and English is like wearing jade
jewellery with foreign clothes” (Piller, 2012).
10%
60%
30%
Q.8 What do you think about code-switching in TV programs?
Positive Neutral Negative

XXVII | P a g e
4.3 Section 3: Basic Information
Demographic Profile Variable Frequency Percentage
Age 16-25 11 55%
26-40 4 20%
41-55 3 15%
56 or above 2 10%
Total 20 100%
Education Level Tertiary 12 60%
Secondary 5 25%
Primary 2 10%
No school 1 5%
Total 20 100%
Mother language Chinese 20 100%
English 0 0%
Total 20 100%
Second language Chinese 0 0%
English 20 100%
Total 0 100%
Table 4.1 Demographic profiles of respondents
In this research, most of the respondents fall into the age group of 16-25 (55%)
followed by three small portions making up the total number of respondents, 20% of
age group 26-40, 15% of age group 41-55 and 10% of age group 56 or above. For the
education level, 60% interviewees are tertiary level, 25% are secondary level. Only
10% and 5% are primary level and no school. All of the interviewees’ mother language
is Cantonese and their second language is English.
The table above shows that the main respondents are 16-25 teenagers, who
have a tertiary education level and speak Cantonese as mother language and English
as a second language.

XXVIII | P a g e
4.4 Conclusion
Based on the data collected from the survey in part one, Hongkongese
motivations for using code-switching in daily life were usually used to show solidarity
and social status, to discuss specific topics like taboos, and sometimes to express
feelings. However, they do not use it to persuade someone.
Part two found that Hongkongese think that the frequency of code-switching
that appears in TV programs is acceptable and their understanding of those TV
programs is not affected by code-switching. But, when using code-switching,
Hongkongese people only usually emulate actors unintentionally. Most Hongkongese
seems to feel neutrally towards code-switching in TV programs, but by contrast, the
percentage of those who view it negatively is higher than those who view it positively.
From my point of view, Hongkongese seem to be greatly influenced by the TV
programs that use code-switching. This can be explained by professor Chiu who stated
that these TV programs may “re-shape the audience’s language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012,
P.28)
Although Hongkongese tend to use code-switching in their daily life, and
generally feel it is neutral, the percentage of those who view it negatively is higher
than those who feel positively about code-switching. This shows that many
Hongkongese have recognised the problems associated with excessive code-switching,
which can result in down graded language ability. As Piller states, Hongkongese often
view code-switching as though “it’s a sign of laziness, that it’s disgusting or that it’s a
sign that a person cannot speak proper Cantonese nor proper English.” (Piller, 2012)
The conclusion tends to be made that TV programs influence Hongkongese
language habits greatly, and may even re-shape the Hongkongese attitude towards
language. An example of this would be the increasing prevalence of daily language
habits derived from on-screen language usage. Although Hongkongese feel neutrally
towards code-switching, some think that the problems associated with code-switching
are increasing, the most serious of these being the overall decrease in language ability.

XXIX | P a g e
Chapter 5 Conclusion
Hong Kong is a world known bilingual or even trilingual city.
Although Hongkong's mother language is Cantonese, it is still very
common to hear many English terms embedded within the Cantonese
sentences in daily conversation. According to Holmes’ definition, this
phenomenon is called “code-switching”. Code-switching has been a very
popular linguistics topic for many years, but the focus in Hong Kong is just
Hongkongese motivations and patterns to speak in code-switching only,
but not related to the media. But in the case of Hong Kong that, media is
one of the reasons code-switching has spread so fast in Hong Kong
obviously. With the increasing power and influence of media in Hong Kong,
it is important to investigate the significance of the relationship between
code-switching and media, especially TV programs. TV programs are the
most easily accessible entertainment in Hong Kong and can reach a large
audience - no matter the age, the occupation or the social status, the vast
majority of Hongkongese watch TV. This study aims to investigate the
relationship between code-switching in TV programs and code-switching
in Hongkongese daily conversation.
According to the survey in Chapter 4, Hongkongese are generally
motivated to use code-switching for several reasons Rihane suggests that
these motivations include; wanting to display membership of an ethnic
group, to distinguish social status and to avoid embarrassment through
using certain English terminology. However, in contrast to Rihane's
suggestions, Hongkongese prefer to use pure Cantonese when expressing

XXX | P a g e
emotion or when taking part in negotiation or attempting to persuade
others.
Motivation Use of language Reasons Example
To show solidarity 1. Code-switching to
friends, parents and
teachers
2. Pure Cantonese to
relatives, elderlies and
managers
1. To show the Close
relationship with
audiences
2. Represent they are in
the same membership
我一陣要去canteen食晏。
(I will have lunch at canteen
later)
To show social
status
1. Code-switching to
Friends, Parents and
teachers
2. Pure Cantonese to
relatives, elderlies and
managers
To distinguish the different
social statues
我地聽日會去Disneyland玩
呀。
(We are going to Disneyland
tomorrow.)
To discuss a topic Code-switching To avoid embarrassments 我覺得sex係中國人的禁
忌。
(I think sex is the taboo of
Chinese people.)
To express
feelings and
affection
Cantonese More easy to express their
feelings
Shut up! 你企出去班房。
(Shut up! You stand out of
the classroom.)
To persuade Cantonese More easy to understand 希望你會buy我個idea.

XXXI | P a g e
It is interesting to note that even though Hongkongese generally
feel code switching is a poor language habit they are unable to stop using
it. This is demonstrated by Piller's research in 2012.
Table 5.1 Sum up the motivation of Hongkongese to use code-switching
In conclusion, “the media is like a mirror” (Chiu, 2012, P.28) which
reflects the real situation in Hong Kong. On the one hand, code-switching
commonly appears in TV programs because Hongkongese use code-
switching very often in daily life. On the other hand, the influence of
media is huge, and can itself change Hongkongese language habits, as the
audiences are influenced to use code-switching more regularly in
emulation of the actors on screen. As Chiu said in her research, the mass
media “might further influence and even re-shape the audience’s
language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28), and this is what Hong Kong people
are facing. Therefore, the relationship between code-switching in TV
programs and code-switching in Hongkongese daily conversation is
cyclical in nature- even though Hongkongese think this is a negative
development, they cannot stop using it in their daily life because code-
switching is already part of their life. Also, the media continuously
promotes code-switching in many ways, including TV programs, thereby
influencing the language habits of the people of Hong Kong. This
demonstrates the inter-related nature of Hongkongese code-switching.
audience (Hope you will buy my
idea.)
TV programs - reflect the
real situation of Hong
Kong

XXXII | P a g e
Reference List
1. Abalhassan, K. M., & Al Shalawi, H. G. (2000). Code-switching Behavior of Arab
Speakers of English as a Second Language in the United States*. Intercultural
Communication Studies, X(1), 179-188.
2. Al-Khatib, H. (2003). Language Alternation among Arabic and English Youth
Bilinguals: Reflecting or Constructing Social Realities? International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, VI(6), 409-422. Retrieved December 25, 2012
3. Auer, P. (2002). Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity.
London: Rouledge.
4. Brice, A. & Brice, R. (2009). (Ed.s). Language development: Monolingual and
bilingual acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
5. D. C. S. Li, Cantonese-English code-switching research in Hong Kong: a Y2K review, in
World Englishes 19(3), 2000, pp.305—322.
6. Das, Sonia (2011). Rewriting the past and reimagining the future: The social life of a
Tamil heritage language industry. American Ethnologist 38 (4): 774–789.
7. Gumperz, J. J. (1987). Discourse Strategy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved December 14, 2012
8. Goldstein, B.; Kohnert, K. (2005). Speech, language and hearing in developing
bilingual children: Current findings and future directions. Language, Speech and
Hearing services in Schools 36 (3): 264–67. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/026).
9. H. Cao, Development of a Cantonese-English code-mixing speech recognition system,
PhD dissertation, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011.
10. Hok Shing C. (2003).Aspect of the Syntax,the Pragmatics,and the Production of Code-
Switching: New York. Peter Lang Publishing.
11. Holmes, J. (2012). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (6th ed.). Wellington: Longman.
12. Li Wei, ed. (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge.

XXXIII | P a g e
13. Lee. J, (2012). A Corpus-based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech. 2012
International Conference on Asian Language Processing,pp. 165-168. Retrieved
March 18, 2013, from
http://www2.ctl.cityu.edu.hk/~jsylee/publications/ialp2012.pdf
14. Leung, C. (2006). Code switching in print advertisements in Hong Kong and Sweden.
MA Thesis, Lunds Universitet, Linguistics and Phonetics.
15. McArthur, T.B., & McArthur, R. (Eds.).(2005). Concise Oxford Companion to the
English Language. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT363&
dq=intra+word+switching&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VaVGUaylPMediAfMv4HoBw&ved=0CC0
Q6AEwAQConcise#v=onepage&q&f=false
16. Myers-Scotton , C. (2006). Multiple voices: an introduction to Bilingualism, Blackwell
17. McClure, Erica (2001). Oral and Written Assyrian-English Code-switching. In Rodolfo
Jacobson. Code switching Worldwide II. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.
Page 166. Print.
18. MacSwan, Jeff (2000). The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence
from code switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54.
19. MacSwan, Jeff (2013). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In T. Bhatia and W.
Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.
20. Shabt, P. C. (2007). The Relationship Between Gender and Types of Code-Switching
Among Lebanese Youth. Beirut: American University of Beirut.
21. Suleiman, Y. (1999). Language and society in the Middle East and North Africa:
Studies in variation and identity. UK: Curzon Press.
22. Swann, J., & Sinka, I. (2007). Style Shifting, Codeswitching. In D. Graddol, D. Leith, J.
Swann, M. Rhys, & J. Gillen (Eds.), Changing English (p. 242). Abingdon: Routledge.
23. Torres, Lourdes (2007). In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a
Writers. Melus 32 (1): 75–96.
24. Woolard, Kathryn (2004). Codeswitching. In A. Duranti. A Companion to Linguistic
Anthropology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 73–94.

XXXIV | P a g e
Chapter 7 Appendices - Questionnaire
University of Portsmouth
We are pleasant to inform you that we are doing a research of motivations of code-
switching and the influences of code-switching in TV programs under the linguistic analysis
course. All data collected will be used under academic aspect and disposed after the
assignment.
Section 1: Motivations of using code-switching
1) Who you talk to will use code-switching?For
example, friends/parents/relatives/elderly? Why?
2) Will you use code-switching when you are talking
about some taboos like emotional or sexual topics (or
any others)? Why?
Yes/ No
3) Will you use code-switching when you are as
gladness, nervous, sadness or irritation (or any
others)? Why?
Yes/ No
4) Will you use code-switching when you want to
persuade someone? Why?
Yes/ No
Section 2: Influences of TV programs
5) Do you think code-switching in the TV programs in
Hong Kong are too often? Why?
Acceptable / Too much
6) Do you think code-switching in the TV programs in
Hong Kong will interrupt your understanding of the
programs? Why?
Yes/ No
7) Do you use code-switching in your conversation like
the actors do? Why?
Yes/ No

XXXV | P a g e
Can you give some examples?
8) What do you think about code-switching in TV
programs? Why?
Positive/ Neutral / Negative
Section 3: Basic Information
9) Age: 16-25 25-40 40-55 above 55
10) Education level: Primary / Secondary / Tertiary Education
11) Mother language: Cantonese/English/Others: ____________
12) Second language: Cantonese/English/Others: ____________
Please circle the appreciate choice and write your answer clearly.
We would like to express grateful for you generous help again.
Chapter 8 Bibliography
1. Abalhassan, K. M., & Al Shalawi, H. G. (2000). Code-switching Behavior of Arab
Speakers of English as a Second Language in the United States*. Intercultural
Communication Studies, X(1), 179-188.
2. Al-Khatib, H. (2003). Language Alternation among Arabic and English Youth
Bilinguals: Reflecting or Constructing Social Realities? International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, VI(6), 409-422. Retrieved December 25, 2012
3. Auer, P. (2002). Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity.
London: Rouledge.
4. Brice, A. & Brice, R. (2009). (Ed.s). Language development: Monolingual and
bilingual acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
5. Brown, Keith (Ed.), (2006). Encyclopedia of language & linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier,
United Kingdom.
6. Chan, Elaine (2002). Beyond Pedagogy: language and identity in post-colonial Hong
Kong. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23 (2), pp. 271–285.
7. Chen, Katherine & Carper, Gray (2005). Multilingual Hong Kong: A sociolinguistic
case study of code-switching (video recording). Princeton, NJ: Films for the
Humanities & Sciences.
8. Chen K. H. Y., The Social Distinctiveness of Two Code-mixing Styles in Hong Kong, in
Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, MA: Cascadilla
Press, 2005, pp.527-541.
9. Clyne, Michael (2000). Constraints on code-switching: how universal are they? In Li
Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.
10. Cromdal, Jakob (2001). Overlap in Bilingual Play: Some Implications of Code-
Switching for Overlap Resolution. Research on Language and Social Interaction 34
(4): 421–51. doi:10.1207/S15327973RLSI3404_02.
11. D. C. S. Li, Cantonese-English code-switching research in Hong Kong: a Y2K review, in
World Englishes 19(3), 2000, pp.305—322.
12. Das, Sonia (2011). Rewriting the past and reimagining the future: The social life of a
Tamil heritage language industry. American Ethnologist 38 (4): 774–789.
13. Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved December 14, 2012

XXXVI | P a g e
14. Genessee, Fred (2000). Early bilingual language development: one language or two?
In Li Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.
15. Goldstein, B.; Kohnert, K. (2005). Speech, language and hearing in developing
bilingual children: Current findings and future directions. Language, Speech and
Hearing services in Schools 36 (3): 264–67. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/026).
16. H. Cao, Development of a Cantonese-English code-mixing speech recognition system,
PhD dissertation, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011.
17. Hok Shing C. (2003).Aspect of the Syntax,the Pragmatics,and the Production of Code-
Switching: New York. Peter Lang Publishing.
18. Holmes, J. (2012). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (6th ed.). Wellington: Longman.
19. Kroskrity, Paul V (2000). Language ideologies in the expression and representation of
Arizona Tewa identity. In P. V. Kroskrity. Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities,
and Identities. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. pp. 329–59.
20. Li Wei, ed. (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge.
21. Lee. J, (2012). A Corpus-based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech. 2012
International Conference on Asian Language Processing,pp. 165-168. Retrieved
March 18, 2013, from
http://www2.ctl.cityu.edu.hk/~jsylee/publications/ialp2012.pdf
22. Leung, C. (2006). Code switching in print advertisements in Hong Kong and Sweden.
MA Thesis, Lunds Universitet, Linguistics and Phonetics.
23. McArthur, T.B., & McArthur, R. (Eds.).(2005). Concise Oxford Companion to the
English Language. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT363&
dq=intra+word+switching&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VaVGUaylPMediAfMv4HoBw&ved=0CC0
Q6AEwAQConcise#v=onepage&q&f=false
24. Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual Speech: A typology of Code- mixing. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
25. Myers-Scotton , C. (2006). Multiple voices: an introduction to Bilingualism, Blackwell
26. McClure, Erica (2001). Oral and Written Assyrian-English Code-switching. In Rodolfo
Jacobson. Code switching Worldwide II. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.
Page 166. Print.
27. MacSwan, Jeff (2000). The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence
from code switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54.
28. MacSwan, Jeff (2013). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In T. Bhatia and W.
Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.
29. Pujolar, Joan (2000). Gender, Heteroglossia and Power. A Sociolinguistic Study of
Youth Culture. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
30. Reyes, Iliana (2004). Functions of code switching in schoolchildren's conversations.
Bilingual Research Journal 28 (1): 77–98. doi:10.1080/15235882.2004.10162613.
31. Shabt, P. C. (2007). The Relationship Between Gender and Types of Code-Switching
Among Lebanese Youth. Beirut: American University of Beirut.
32. Suleiman, Y. (1999). Language and society in the Middle East and North Africa:
Studies in variation and identity. UK: Curzon Press.
33. Swann, J., & Sinka, I. (2007). Style Shifting, Codeswitching. In D. Graddol, D. Leith, J.
Swann, M. Rhys, & J. Gillen (Eds.), Changing English (p. 242). Abingdon: Routledge.

XXXVII | P a g e
34. Torres, Lourdes (2007). In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a
Writers. Melus 32 (1): 75–96.
35. Woolard, Kathryn (2004). Codeswitching. In A. Duranti. A Companion to Linguistic
Anthropology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 73–94.
36. Winford, Donald (2003). Code Switching: Linguistic Aspects. An Introduction to
Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003. 126-167. Print.

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