India has a long historical tradition of water harvesting that dates back thousands of years. Early human settlements collected and stored water from nearby rivers and streams. Over time, techniques were developed to augment water sources, such as collecting rainwater, tapping springs, and managing snow/glacier melt. Rulers built large reservoirs, ponds, lakes and canals to provide reliable water sources and encourage agriculture. Communities and individuals also built local water collection devices. This widespread water management ensured adequate availability for all and formed the basis for development. Lessons can be learned from this glorious historical tradition.
- Ur was an important Sumerian city-state located in modern-day Iraq that dates back to 3800 BC. It was a major city and later the capital of the Sumerian Empire, known for its large size and many temples and tombs. The remains of the Great Ziggurat of Ur, a temple complex, can still be seen today.
- Miletus was a major ancient Greek city located in what is now Turkey. Founded around 1000 BC, it became a prominent trading center and led the Ionian Revolt against Persia in 499 BC. The city was later rebuilt around 450 BC using an innovative grid plan to maximize airflow. It remained an important economic and cultural center into Roman
The Sun Temple was built in the 13th century as a representation of Surya, the Sun God's chariot. It has intricate stone carvings and was precisely planned according to ancient texts. The main temple reaches 225 feet high and was the tallest structure in Odisha at the time. It features 24 massive wheels carved with designs and statues, representing the chariot pulled by seven horses that Surya rides across the sky each day.
Pataliputra was an ancient city in modern-day Patna, India that served as the capital of several successive dynasties from the Nandas to the Guptas due to its central location. Situated at the confluence of major rivers, it dominated riverine trade and was a major commercial center. During the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, Pataliputra was one of the world's largest cities, with a population between 150,000-400,000 people spread over 25.5 square kilometers. It was well-fortified with walls, towers, gates and a surrounding ditch for defense.
Chola Temples with Special Reference to TanjavurVirag Sontakke
The document provides information about Chola temples with a focus on the Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjore. It discusses the rise of the powerful Chola dynasty in the 9th century CE and their achievements in various fields including art and architecture. It describes the key features of early Chola temples from 850-985 CE that showed Pallava influences and innovations. It then focuses on the major later period temples commissioned by kings like Rajaraja I from 985-1122 CE including the Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, and the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram. It provides details about the architectural elements,
The document describes various traditional village layout plans from ancient India. It discusses 8 different plans - Dandaka, Sarvatobhadra, Swastika, Nandyavarta, Chaturmukha, Karmuka, Prastara, and Padmaka. Each layout has distinct features such as shape, location of temples, streets, gates, and defensive structures like walls. Specific examples of historical cities like Jaipur and Madurai are also mentioned that exhibit elements of these traditional plans.
1. Delhi has a long history as a settlement dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. It has been ruled by many empires and dynasties over the past millennium who have developed it as their capital. 2. Over time, seven main cities have been developed in Delhi - Qila Rai Pithora, Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlakabad, Ferozabad, Shergarh, and Shahjahanabad. 3. Shahjahanabad, built in the 1600s, was the seventh major planned city and it included key features like the Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk and a walled city.
This is the first of 4 parts of presentation showing Traditional water harvesting system prevailing in North and North-Eastern parts of India.Over a period of time these have become defunct in general.However the same needs to be revived to create local sources.
- Ur was an important Sumerian city-state located in modern-day Iraq that dates back to 3800 BC. It was a major city and later the capital of the Sumerian Empire, known for its large size and many temples and tombs. The remains of the Great Ziggurat of Ur, a temple complex, can still be seen today.
- Miletus was a major ancient Greek city located in what is now Turkey. Founded around 1000 BC, it became a prominent trading center and led the Ionian Revolt against Persia in 499 BC. The city was later rebuilt around 450 BC using an innovative grid plan to maximize airflow. It remained an important economic and cultural center into Roman
The Sun Temple was built in the 13th century as a representation of Surya, the Sun God's chariot. It has intricate stone carvings and was precisely planned according to ancient texts. The main temple reaches 225 feet high and was the tallest structure in Odisha at the time. It features 24 massive wheels carved with designs and statues, representing the chariot pulled by seven horses that Surya rides across the sky each day.
Pataliputra was an ancient city in modern-day Patna, India that served as the capital of several successive dynasties from the Nandas to the Guptas due to its central location. Situated at the confluence of major rivers, it dominated riverine trade and was a major commercial center. During the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, Pataliputra was one of the world's largest cities, with a population between 150,000-400,000 people spread over 25.5 square kilometers. It was well-fortified with walls, towers, gates and a surrounding ditch for defense.
Chola Temples with Special Reference to TanjavurVirag Sontakke
The document provides information about Chola temples with a focus on the Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjore. It discusses the rise of the powerful Chola dynasty in the 9th century CE and their achievements in various fields including art and architecture. It describes the key features of early Chola temples from 850-985 CE that showed Pallava influences and innovations. It then focuses on the major later period temples commissioned by kings like Rajaraja I from 985-1122 CE including the Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, and the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram. It provides details about the architectural elements,
The document describes various traditional village layout plans from ancient India. It discusses 8 different plans - Dandaka, Sarvatobhadra, Swastika, Nandyavarta, Chaturmukha, Karmuka, Prastara, and Padmaka. Each layout has distinct features such as shape, location of temples, streets, gates, and defensive structures like walls. Specific examples of historical cities like Jaipur and Madurai are also mentioned that exhibit elements of these traditional plans.
1. Delhi has a long history as a settlement dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. It has been ruled by many empires and dynasties over the past millennium who have developed it as their capital. 2. Over time, seven main cities have been developed in Delhi - Qila Rai Pithora, Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlakabad, Ferozabad, Shergarh, and Shahjahanabad. 3. Shahjahanabad, built in the 1600s, was the seventh major planned city and it included key features like the Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk and a walled city.
This is the first of 4 parts of presentation showing Traditional water harvesting system prevailing in North and North-Eastern parts of India.Over a period of time these have become defunct in general.However the same needs to be revived to create local sources.
The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is the world's largest masonry dam, located on the Krishna River between the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh in India. Constructed between 1955 and 1967, the dam created a massive reservoir with a capacity of over 11 trillion cubic meters. Measuring 490 feet tall and 1.6 km long, the dam provides irrigation water and hydroelectric power to several districts. There is potential to further utilize the dam's unused storage capacity below the canal level by installing water pumps to access over 150 trillion cubic liters of additional storage space.
The Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India between 600 BCE and the 17th century CE from their capital in Madurai. They commissioned the construction of the famous Meenakshi Temple in Madurai in the early 17th century. The temple was built at the center of the city according to traditional south Indian temple town planning, with concentric streets radiating outward. The Meenakshi temple complex covers an area of around 45 acres and features 12 towering gopurams, the tallest being over 170 feet high, as well as two sanctuaries housing the main deities Meenakshi and Sundareswarar.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of town planning in India from ancient to modern times. It describes the major periods of development:
- Ancient period saw the rise of the Indus Valley civilization and planned cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Vedic and Buddhist texts also discussed early town planning principles.
- Medieval towns were dominated by churches and castles and tended to be irregular in layout for defensive purposes.
- Mughal cities like Agra, Delhi, and Shahjahanabad were redesigned with gardens and parks incorporated.
- The British established colonial cantonments and hill stations outside existing Indian towns during the pre-independence period. New Delhi was
Stepwells, also called bawdi or baoli, are wells with steps descending down to reach the water source. They were an important architectural feature in parts of India and Pakistan for both practical water collection and leisure, with some becoming ornate monuments. Examples mentioned include Chand Baori with its 3,500 steps, Rani Ki Ji Baori built by a queen in Bundi, and Agrasen Ki Baoli in Delhi with 103 steps. The Rani Vav stepwell in Patan, Gujarat from the 11th century is considered one of the most magnificent with its elaborate carvings and sculptures.
New Delhi was designed in the early 20th century to serve as the capital of British-controlled India. It was designed by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker in a grandiose colonial style inspired by Mughal architecture. Construction began in the 1920s on a symmetrical grid layout with wide boulevards, bisected by a central axis containing government buildings. Some of the most prominent architectural buildings included Rashtrapati Bhavan, the residence of the President of India, and the circular Parliament House, as well as Connaught Place, a commercial hub, and memorial structures like India Gate.
The document summarizes some of India's World Heritage Sites as recognized by UNESCO. It discusses 29 total sites, including 23 cultural sites and 6 natural sites. Some of the sites highlighted include the Ajanta Caves, Agra Fort, Kaziranga National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Humayun's Tomb, Qutub Minar, Red Fort Complex, Churches and Convents of Goa, Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, Group of Monuments at Hampi, Group of Monuments in Pattadakal, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Khajuraho
The Srirangam temple complex in Srirangam, India is the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world, covering over 630,000 square meters. It is bounded by the Kaveri River and its distributary, the Kollidam River. The complex consists of 7 walled sections and 21 towers, including the 236 foot tall Rajagopuram tower that dominates the landscape for miles. The temple contains many structures like the Hall of 1000 Pillars and shrines to various forms of Vishnu. It follows Dravidian architecture and attracts over 1 million visitors annually for its 21 day festival.
The document provides details about the Vijayanagara architecture found at the historic city of Hampi in India. Some key points:
1) The ruins are divided into the Royal Centre, where the kings lived, and the Sacred Centre along the river, which contains intricately decorated temples like the Virupaksha Temple.
2) Architecture is modest in scale but spans large areas, using granite and chlorite stone. Pillars are decorated with horses, soldiers, and smaller pillars.
3) The Hazara Rama Temple in the Royal Centre was used by the royal family and features four massive black stone pillars and reliefs of court scenes and Krishna.
4) Other structures described
AngkorWat Temple- Conservation, Preservation and Restoration.Vaishnavi Rupeeja
The report speaks of the various stages the temple has undergone for conservation and restoration even after a turmoil of religious and political wars.
Traditional water harvesting methods – their role and scope in correcting ind...IEI GSC
This presentation -- second and last in the series- was made at a workshop on water conservation at Ahmedabad organised by The Institution of Engineers (India), Gujarat State Center in association with Water Management Forum.
Madurai Meenakshi amman temple with the history and its design......the temple location, plan, history, gopurams, rajagopurams, towers of the swami shrine, sundereshwara temple, meenakshi amman temple, temple tank and thousand pillared hall....
The Lingaraj Temple located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha is an example of the Kalinga architectural style. Built in the 11th century, it has a sanctuary tower that is 54 meters tall. The temple complex consists of a sanctuary, assembly hall, festival hall, and offering hall arranged in a deula plan configuration. It is renowned for its intricate stone carvings that decorate the exterior walls.
The document provides information on regional and city planning for Varanasi, India. It discusses the following key points:
1. The importance and need for regional planning to promote balanced and equitable development, reduce disparities, and manage issues like migration.
2. Goals for Varanasi city planning include understanding sustainability concerns, assessing status by sector, and formulating strategies to develop Varanasi as a regional economic center.
3. An introduction to Varanasi district and city which describe the geography, infrastructure, demography, economy, and industries. Varanasi has a rich cultural heritage and is an important tourist and commercial center.
The document discusses the Northern Hindu architectural style that originated in Orissa, India. It began around 260 BC after the region was conquered by Emperor Ashoka. Major temples built in this style include the temples of Jaggannath at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konark. The Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar and the Sun Temple at Konark are highlighted as prime examples of the ornate Orissan architectural style, with elaborate carvings and symbolic design elements.
Bhubaneswar, India is famous as the "Temple City" for its many well-preserved Hindu temples from the 11th century that depict the Kalinga style of architecture. Some of the most prominent temples mentioned are the Lingaraj Temple, Mukteshwar Temple noted for its arched gateway, and Rajarani Temple composed of intricate stonework. The document also discusses other religious sites like the Dhauli Hills, which contain edicts from Emperor Ashoka and a stone elephant sculpture, as well as the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves with carvings of importance to Jainism.
- Prophet Muhammad founded Islam in 570 AD and received revelations from Gabriel in 610 AD instructing him to convey the message of believing in one God, Allah. However, he faced resistance and persecution in Mecca, leading him to flee to Medina in 622 AD, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
- Several invaders later conquered parts of India, including Muhammad bin Qasim who defeated the king of Sindh in 712 AD, Muhammad Ghazni who attacked India 17 times between 1000-1026 AD plundering wealth and destroying temples, and Muhammad Ghauri who defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 AD capturing Delhi.
- The Delhi Sultan
Vernacular architecture in Kerala is influenced by the region's climate and availability of materials. Traditional houses have sloped roofs, verandas, and courtyards to deal with heavy rainfall. The Nalukettu house type, centered around a courtyard, was common for wealthy families. Temple architecture also uses local wood, tiles, and granite, with steeply pitched copper roofs resembling Himalayan styles. Materials like timber, thatch, laterite, and lime mortar are suited to the humid climate. Temple plans vary from circular to square, often containing a central shrine surrounded by cloisters and subsidiary structures.
The document provides details about the Statue of Unity, the world's tallest statue located in Gujarat, India. It discusses the following key points:
1) The 182-meter tall statue was constructed between 2015-2018 to honor Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, costing over $400 million.
2) Unique engineering challenges included its slender shape with a narrow base, high winds, and seismic activity. The design incorporated dampers and overlapping cladding.
3) Over 6,500 tonnes of structural steel and concrete were used, with rebar collected from Indian farmers. The statue consists of two reinforced concrete cores within a cladded outer structure.
Society and Environment in Ancient India (Study of Hydrology)inventionjournals
This document discusses the advanced hydraulic engineering techniques used in ancient Indian civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic period, and various dynasties across North and South India. It describes various water conservation and management structures like reservoirs, dams, canals, wells and drainage systems developed during these periods to store rainwater and support agriculture. Key examples highlighted include the Great Bath structures in Harappan cities, extensive reservoir networks in Dholavira, irrigation works constructed during the Mauryan empire, and large artificial lakes and tank systems developed in regions like Kashmir, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and the Deccan plateau.
M.Lakshmana Rao is a geography teacher with several academic achievements and awards. He discusses the importance of water for life and various human and industrial activities. Water is essential but only a small portion of Earth's water is freshwater. India receives 4% of global precipitation but faces increasing water stress due to a growing population, overexploitation of resources, and unequal access to water. Traditional water management techniques used in India helped conserve and distribute water effectively for irrigation and daily needs.
The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is the world's largest masonry dam, located on the Krishna River between the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh in India. Constructed between 1955 and 1967, the dam created a massive reservoir with a capacity of over 11 trillion cubic meters. Measuring 490 feet tall and 1.6 km long, the dam provides irrigation water and hydroelectric power to several districts. There is potential to further utilize the dam's unused storage capacity below the canal level by installing water pumps to access over 150 trillion cubic liters of additional storage space.
The Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India between 600 BCE and the 17th century CE from their capital in Madurai. They commissioned the construction of the famous Meenakshi Temple in Madurai in the early 17th century. The temple was built at the center of the city according to traditional south Indian temple town planning, with concentric streets radiating outward. The Meenakshi temple complex covers an area of around 45 acres and features 12 towering gopurams, the tallest being over 170 feet high, as well as two sanctuaries housing the main deities Meenakshi and Sundareswarar.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of town planning in India from ancient to modern times. It describes the major periods of development:
- Ancient period saw the rise of the Indus Valley civilization and planned cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Vedic and Buddhist texts also discussed early town planning principles.
- Medieval towns were dominated by churches and castles and tended to be irregular in layout for defensive purposes.
- Mughal cities like Agra, Delhi, and Shahjahanabad were redesigned with gardens and parks incorporated.
- The British established colonial cantonments and hill stations outside existing Indian towns during the pre-independence period. New Delhi was
Stepwells, also called bawdi or baoli, are wells with steps descending down to reach the water source. They were an important architectural feature in parts of India and Pakistan for both practical water collection and leisure, with some becoming ornate monuments. Examples mentioned include Chand Baori with its 3,500 steps, Rani Ki Ji Baori built by a queen in Bundi, and Agrasen Ki Baoli in Delhi with 103 steps. The Rani Vav stepwell in Patan, Gujarat from the 11th century is considered one of the most magnificent with its elaborate carvings and sculptures.
New Delhi was designed in the early 20th century to serve as the capital of British-controlled India. It was designed by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker in a grandiose colonial style inspired by Mughal architecture. Construction began in the 1920s on a symmetrical grid layout with wide boulevards, bisected by a central axis containing government buildings. Some of the most prominent architectural buildings included Rashtrapati Bhavan, the residence of the President of India, and the circular Parliament House, as well as Connaught Place, a commercial hub, and memorial structures like India Gate.
The document summarizes some of India's World Heritage Sites as recognized by UNESCO. It discusses 29 total sites, including 23 cultural sites and 6 natural sites. Some of the sites highlighted include the Ajanta Caves, Agra Fort, Kaziranga National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Humayun's Tomb, Qutub Minar, Red Fort Complex, Churches and Convents of Goa, Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, Group of Monuments at Hampi, Group of Monuments in Pattadakal, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Khajuraho
The Srirangam temple complex in Srirangam, India is the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world, covering over 630,000 square meters. It is bounded by the Kaveri River and its distributary, the Kollidam River. The complex consists of 7 walled sections and 21 towers, including the 236 foot tall Rajagopuram tower that dominates the landscape for miles. The temple contains many structures like the Hall of 1000 Pillars and shrines to various forms of Vishnu. It follows Dravidian architecture and attracts over 1 million visitors annually for its 21 day festival.
The document provides details about the Vijayanagara architecture found at the historic city of Hampi in India. Some key points:
1) The ruins are divided into the Royal Centre, where the kings lived, and the Sacred Centre along the river, which contains intricately decorated temples like the Virupaksha Temple.
2) Architecture is modest in scale but spans large areas, using granite and chlorite stone. Pillars are decorated with horses, soldiers, and smaller pillars.
3) The Hazara Rama Temple in the Royal Centre was used by the royal family and features four massive black stone pillars and reliefs of court scenes and Krishna.
4) Other structures described
AngkorWat Temple- Conservation, Preservation and Restoration.Vaishnavi Rupeeja
The report speaks of the various stages the temple has undergone for conservation and restoration even after a turmoil of religious and political wars.
Traditional water harvesting methods – their role and scope in correcting ind...IEI GSC
This presentation -- second and last in the series- was made at a workshop on water conservation at Ahmedabad organised by The Institution of Engineers (India), Gujarat State Center in association with Water Management Forum.
Madurai Meenakshi amman temple with the history and its design......the temple location, plan, history, gopurams, rajagopurams, towers of the swami shrine, sundereshwara temple, meenakshi amman temple, temple tank and thousand pillared hall....
The Lingaraj Temple located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha is an example of the Kalinga architectural style. Built in the 11th century, it has a sanctuary tower that is 54 meters tall. The temple complex consists of a sanctuary, assembly hall, festival hall, and offering hall arranged in a deula plan configuration. It is renowned for its intricate stone carvings that decorate the exterior walls.
The document provides information on regional and city planning for Varanasi, India. It discusses the following key points:
1. The importance and need for regional planning to promote balanced and equitable development, reduce disparities, and manage issues like migration.
2. Goals for Varanasi city planning include understanding sustainability concerns, assessing status by sector, and formulating strategies to develop Varanasi as a regional economic center.
3. An introduction to Varanasi district and city which describe the geography, infrastructure, demography, economy, and industries. Varanasi has a rich cultural heritage and is an important tourist and commercial center.
The document discusses the Northern Hindu architectural style that originated in Orissa, India. It began around 260 BC after the region was conquered by Emperor Ashoka. Major temples built in this style include the temples of Jaggannath at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konark. The Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar and the Sun Temple at Konark are highlighted as prime examples of the ornate Orissan architectural style, with elaborate carvings and symbolic design elements.
Bhubaneswar, India is famous as the "Temple City" for its many well-preserved Hindu temples from the 11th century that depict the Kalinga style of architecture. Some of the most prominent temples mentioned are the Lingaraj Temple, Mukteshwar Temple noted for its arched gateway, and Rajarani Temple composed of intricate stonework. The document also discusses other religious sites like the Dhauli Hills, which contain edicts from Emperor Ashoka and a stone elephant sculpture, as well as the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves with carvings of importance to Jainism.
- Prophet Muhammad founded Islam in 570 AD and received revelations from Gabriel in 610 AD instructing him to convey the message of believing in one God, Allah. However, he faced resistance and persecution in Mecca, leading him to flee to Medina in 622 AD, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
- Several invaders later conquered parts of India, including Muhammad bin Qasim who defeated the king of Sindh in 712 AD, Muhammad Ghazni who attacked India 17 times between 1000-1026 AD plundering wealth and destroying temples, and Muhammad Ghauri who defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 AD capturing Delhi.
- The Delhi Sultan
Vernacular architecture in Kerala is influenced by the region's climate and availability of materials. Traditional houses have sloped roofs, verandas, and courtyards to deal with heavy rainfall. The Nalukettu house type, centered around a courtyard, was common for wealthy families. Temple architecture also uses local wood, tiles, and granite, with steeply pitched copper roofs resembling Himalayan styles. Materials like timber, thatch, laterite, and lime mortar are suited to the humid climate. Temple plans vary from circular to square, often containing a central shrine surrounded by cloisters and subsidiary structures.
The document provides details about the Statue of Unity, the world's tallest statue located in Gujarat, India. It discusses the following key points:
1) The 182-meter tall statue was constructed between 2015-2018 to honor Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, costing over $400 million.
2) Unique engineering challenges included its slender shape with a narrow base, high winds, and seismic activity. The design incorporated dampers and overlapping cladding.
3) Over 6,500 tonnes of structural steel and concrete were used, with rebar collected from Indian farmers. The statue consists of two reinforced concrete cores within a cladded outer structure.
Society and Environment in Ancient India (Study of Hydrology)inventionjournals
This document discusses the advanced hydraulic engineering techniques used in ancient Indian civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic period, and various dynasties across North and South India. It describes various water conservation and management structures like reservoirs, dams, canals, wells and drainage systems developed during these periods to store rainwater and support agriculture. Key examples highlighted include the Great Bath structures in Harappan cities, extensive reservoir networks in Dholavira, irrigation works constructed during the Mauryan empire, and large artificial lakes and tank systems developed in regions like Kashmir, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and the Deccan plateau.
M.Lakshmana Rao is a geography teacher with several academic achievements and awards. He discusses the importance of water for life and various human and industrial activities. Water is essential but only a small portion of Earth's water is freshwater. India receives 4% of global precipitation but faces increasing water stress due to a growing population, overexploitation of resources, and unequal access to water. Traditional water management techniques used in India helped conserve and distribute water effectively for irrigation and daily needs.
Kumbhalgarh Fort in Rajasthan its Archaeology and History.KPSingh93
The document discusses the importance of water resources and hydraulic engineering techniques used in ancient India, particularly at Kumbhalgarh in Rajasthan. It describes various water storage and irrigation systems mentioned in early texts like the Arthashastra. These included lakes, reservoirs, dams, and water lifting devices that helped sustain human settlements and agriculture even in dry areas. The document focuses on the elaborate water systems constructed at the fort and palace of Kumbhalgarh between 1443-1458 CE, which incorporated functional tanks and architectural features to meet needs for drinking water, irrigation, and aesthetics.
The document discusses water resources and water scarcity issues in India. It provides the following key points:
1) Though water is a renewable resource, nearly 2 billion people will face absolute water scarcity by 2025 due to over-exploitation and unequal access.
2) Water scarcity is caused not just by low rainfall but also factors like population growth, over-exploitation for irrigation and industries, urbanization, and pollution.
3) Dams were built for multiple purposes like irrigation, power, and flood control after independence, but they fragmented rivers and displaced populations, causing conflicts over water usage.
Water scarcity occurs when there is insufficient water to meet normal needs like drinking and cooking. It is caused by factors like growing populations, overexploitation of water resources, increased well use, and urbanization. Conserving water is essential as water is vital for life and society's needs, but resources are unevenly distributed. Excessive groundwater use for irrigation has lowered water tables and dried wells in many places, making conservation necessary.
Multi-purpose river projects have a long history in India, from ancient times when sophisticated structures like dams and canals were built for irrigation. Today, dams serve multiple purposes like electricity generation, water supply, flood control, and recreation. However, large dams have faced increasing opposition due to negative environmental and social impacts. They disrupt river flows, fragment habitats, and displace many local communities, often without adequate rehabilitation. While initially seen as development drivers, many multi-purpose projects have failed to achieve their intended purposes, worsening floods and degrading lands and livelihoods. Integrating diverse water needs and reducing trade-offs remains an ongoing challenge.
Multi-purpose river projects and integrated water resources management have commonly used building hydraulic structures like dams as a solution for water conservation dating back to the 1st century BCE in India. Some key historical examples include a complex water harvesting system from the 1st century BCE in Andhra Pradesh comprising percolation tanks fed by canals, and dams and irrigation systems built during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th-3rd century BCE. However, dams have also faced opposition due to negative environmental and social impacts such as displacing large numbers of local people, degrading soils and habitats, disrupting river connectivity, and failing to control floods as intended in some cases.
Water is essential for life but can also cause destruction. It is used for domestic, agricultural, industrial, and transportation purposes as well as generating hydroelectricity. While dams provide benefits like flood control and irrigation, they can negatively impact river ecosystems and displace local communities. Rainwater harvesting techniques like check dams and percolation pits help boost groundwater levels and meet growing water demands. Traditional Indian communities developed sophisticated water management structures like tanks and channels to collect and use rainwater for their needs.
The document discusses water resources and water scarcity issues in India. It notes that while water is essential for life, only 2.5% of the world's water is freshwater and India receives only 4% of global precipitation. Several factors are contributing to decreasing freshwater availability and many regions in India are predicted to experience absolute water scarcity by 2025. Integrated water resource management and conservation methods like rainwater harvesting, watershed development, and water recycling can help address the growing water crisis.
This document discusses water resources in India and water conservation efforts. It explains that while three-fourths of the earth is covered in water, only a small portion is freshwater that can be used. It then outlines various causes of water scarcity in India like population growth, overexploitation for irrigation and industries, urbanization, and pollution. It discusses various traditional and current water harvesting systems used in India as well as multi-purpose dam projects and their advantages and criticisms. Conservation efforts like rooftop rainwater harvesting and revival of traditional systems are seen as viable alternatives.
This document discusses water resources in India and water conservation efforts. It explains that while three-fourths of the earth is covered in water, only a small portion is freshwater that can be used. It then outlines various causes of water scarcity in India like population growth, overexploitation for irrigation and industries, urbanization, and pollution. It discusses various traditional and current water harvesting systems used in India like rooftop rainwater harvesting, diversion channels, and tanks. It also explains the benefits and criticisms of multi-purpose dam projects, and emphasizes the need for improved water management and conservation.
What is an urban Lake? How do I engage with my local lake? How do we work together to protect and rejuvenate our urban lake? Using Bangalore's example, and building on the work by many urban lake groups, citizens and Biome Environmental Trust, here is an introduction to urban lakes and how we as citizens can engage with our common pool urban natural resources. For more information, contact water@biome-solutions.com.
This document provides information about irrigation engineering including:
1. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to soil and discusses the need for irrigation due to insufficient or poorly timed rainfall. Irrigation provides benefits like increased food production and economic development.
2. Irrigation methods are classified as natural or artificial, and artificial methods include flow irrigation using canals, tanks, or wells, as well as lift irrigation. Crop water requirements, duty, delta, crop seasons, and factors affecting duty are also covered.
3. Consumptive water use, evapotranspiration, crop rotation, and how duty can be improved are summarized. The document provides an overview of key concepts in irrigation engineering.
Probing Unresolved Mysteries of Ancient Water TechnologyDr. P.B.Dharmasena
Presentation made at History & Heritage Forum, the Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka on 15th September 2022.
Present crisis of water
Ancient master plan of water resources management
Water based city planning - Anuradhapura
Rainwater harvesting – Pidurangala
Tank cascade systems: The first agricultural heritage in Sri Lanka
Traditional tank-village ecosystem- Lessons for future ‘evergreen agro-ecosystems’ concept
The document summarizes popular struggles related to water in Bolivia and Sudan. In Bolivia, mass protests known as the Cochabamba Water War erupted in 2000 in response to the privatization of the municipal water supply and large rate increases imposed by the private company. After months of demonstrations and clashes with police, the government reversed the privatization. In Sudan, water conflicts stem from northern Arab expansion seeking new farmland and resources in the south. One conflict involved the Jonglei Canal project to drain the Sudd Swamps, which threatened local tribes and was attacked by the Sudan People's Liberation Army, forcing suspension of the project in 1984. Both examples show popular resistance to changes in water access and use of important water
This document summarizes popular struggles related to water in Bolivia and Sudan. In Bolivia, the Cochabamba Water War protests took place from 1999-2000 in response to the privatization of the municipal water supply and dramatic rate increases. Tens of thousands protested, leading the government to reverse privatization. In Sudan, water conflicts stem from northern Arab expansion and mechanized farming threatening southern subsistence farmers. One conflict was over the Jonglei Canal project to drain swampland for farming, but it threatened local tribes and was attacked by the Sudan People's Liberation Army, forcing suspension of the project.
This document provides background information on dams and then focuses on the Mullaperiyar Dam. It discusses that dams were originally built for water supply and irrigation but now serve multiple purposes like flood control, navigation, and hydropower. It then describes the construction and purpose of the Mullaperiyar Dam in Kerala, which was built in 1887-1895 to divert water eastward to Tamil Nadu for irrigation. The dam created the Periyar Thekkady reservoir and the water is now used for hydropower generation in Tamil Nadu before flowing into other rivers.
Ponds are smaller bodies of standing freshwater than lakes. They are often shallow and contain plants, algae, and small aquatic animals. Ponds provide habitat for species like frogs, turtles, and fish. While ponds can be naturally occurring, human activities like roads and overgrazing can negatively impact ponds. The design of a pond determines what wildlife it will support. Ponds are used for aesthetic, agricultural, and wildlife purposes.
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2. CHAPTER - II
WATER HARVESTING – OUR AGE OLD TRADITION
2.0 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
India is a country with very deep historical roots and strong cultural traditions. These are
reflected in our social fabric and institutions of community life. In spite of social movements
of varied nature through the millennia we have retained the spirit and essence of these
traditions and have remained attached to our roots. Some of our traditions, evolved and
developed by our forefathers thousands of years ago have played an important role in
different spheres of life. Most important among these is the tradition of collecting, storing and
preserving water for various uses.
It all started at the dawn of civilization with small human settlements coming up on the banks
of rivers and streams. When due to vagaries of nature the rivers and streams dried up or the
flow dwindled, they moved away to look for more reliable sources of water. In due course of
time large settlements came up along perennial rivers that provided plentiful water. As the
population increased, settlements developed into towns and cities and agriculture expanded,
techniques were developed to augment water availability by collecting and storing rain water,
tapping hill and underground springs and water from snow and glacier melt etc. Water came
to be regarded as precious and its conservation and preservation was sanctified by religion.
Various religious, cultural and social rituals prescribed, interalia, purification and cleansing
with water. Water itself had many applications in different rituals. Development of reliable
sources of water like, storage reservoirs, ponds, lakes, irrigation canals etc. came to be
regarded as an essential part of good governance. Emperors and Kings not only built various
water bodies but also encouraged the village communities and individuals to build these on
their own. Wide-ranging laws were made to regulate their construction and maintenance and
for conservation and preservation of water and its proper distribution and use.
2.1 MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE
Our ancient religious texts and epics give a good insight into the water storage and
conservation systems prevailing in those days. For instance, the sage Narad during his visits
to different kingdoms would invariably enquire about the state of the ponds and other water
bodies and whether these had enough water for the population. In the Ramayana, Lord
Hanuman is wonder struck by the beauty and grandeur of Lanka especially its well-
maintained lakes, baolis, wells, gardens, orchards and forests.
In our villages there are countless stories from mythology, folklore and songs extolling the
glory of our sacred rivers and lakes. The story of Bhagirath single handedly training the
mighty Ganga has been told from generation to generation.
By all accounts, there was no water problem in those days and every household could meet
its minimum water requirements through these rudimentary local water collection and
management measures. It was this basic infrastructure, which served as the foundation for
building large and powerful empires. World history, as indeed our own, is replete with
instances of rise and fall of empires and civilizations as a direct result of the strength or
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3. weakness of this foundation. Let us go back in time and take a quick view of the entire water
scenario in a historical perspective, ponder over the present water crisis and draw lessons for
future course of action.
2.2 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
In India, the first major human settlements started in the Indus Valley (3000-1500 B.C.) in
the north and western India. Evidence of water systems is found in different writings of this
period. There are archaeological evidence of irrigation and drinking water supply systems
from a large number of wells with brick lining. Dholavira, an important site of Indus Valley
had several reservoirs to collect rain water. Similar evidences have been found at
Mohanjodaro and Harappa. In Lothal (Gujarat) and Inamgaon (Maharashtra) and other places
in north and western India small bunds were built by the local people to store rain water for
irrigation and drinking.
2.3 MAURYAN EMPIRE
The Arthashastra of Kautilya gives an extensive account of dams and bunds that were built
for irrigation during the period of the Mauryan Empire. The water supply systems were well
managed within the framework of strict rules and regulations. Different types of taxes were
collected from the cultivators depending upon the nature of irrigation. The tax rate was 25%
of the produce in respect of water drawn from natural sources like rivers, tanks and springs.
For water drawn from storages built by the King the tax rate varied according to the method
of drawing water. For instance, it was 20% of the produce for water drawn manually, 25% for
water drawn by bullocks and 33% for that diverted through channels. Exemptions from
payment of water rates were given for building or improving irrigation facilities. The period
of exemption was 5 years for new tanks and bunds, 4 years for renovating old works and 3
years for clearing the works over-grown with weeds.
Water bodies like reservoirs, bunds and tanks were also privately owned and the owner was
free to sell or mortgage them. The owner could also sell water to others in return for a share
of the produce. In the absence of the owner, the water bodies were to be maintained by the
people of the village. A set of punishments were prescribed for various violations of water
laws like :
♦ Causing damage to another’s ploughed or sown field by letting water overflow from a
tank/ reservoir.
♦ Causing damage to gardens, parks and bunds.
♦ Owner of the higher tank preventing the filling of the lower tank.
♦ Failure to maintain the water body.
♦ Out-of-turn drawing of water from a tank.
♦ Building a well or a tank on someone else’s land.
♦ Selling or mortgaging a water body meant for charitable purposes.
♦ Death penalty was prescribed for breaking a reservoir or tank full of water.
2.4 DEVELOPMENT DURING 1ST CENTURY B.C. AND 15TH CENTURY A.D.
The Satvahanas (1st Century B.C.-2nd Century A.D.) introduced the brick and ring wells. Lake
and well irrigation was developed on a large scale during the time of Pandya, Chera and
Chola dynasties in south India (1st-3rd Century A.D.) and large structures were built across
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4. Cauvery and Vaigai rivers. Irrigation tanks were built, many of these by developing large
natural depressions. Water resources development on a large scale took place during the
Gupta era (300-500 A.D.). In the south, the Pallavas expanded the irrigation system in the 7th
Century A.D. The famous Cauvery anicut was built during this period. Large-scale
construction of tanks (Tataka) for tapping rain water was also done in Tamil Nadu. The Chola
period (985-1205 A.D.) witnessed the introduction of quite advanced irrigation systems,
which brought about prosperity in the Deccan region. This included not only anicuts across
rivers and streams but also chain-tanks i.e. a number of tanks with connecting channels. This
new system was more reliable in terms of water availability and provided better flexibility in
water distribution.
Cauvery Anicut
The Rajput dynasty (1000-1200 A.D.) promoted irrigation works in northern India. The 647
sq.km Bhopal lake was built under King Bhoja. In eastern India Pal and Sen Kings (760-1100
A.D.) built a number of large tanks and lakes in their kingdoms. Rajtarangini of Kalhana
gives a detailed account of irrigation systems developed in the 12th Century in Kashmir.
In the Medieval period, Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) encouraged the farmers
to build their own rain water harvesting systems and wells. Feroze Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388
A.D.) built the Western Yamuna Canal in 1355 to extend irrigation facilities in the dry land
tracts of the present-day Haryana and Rajasthan. Emperor Shahjahan built many canals
prominent among these being the Bari Doab or the Hasli Canal. Under the rule of Rangila
Muhammad Shah, the Eastern Yamuna Canal was built to irrigate large tracts in Uttar
Pradesh.
The Vijaynagar Kingdom (1336-1546 A.D.) in the south took keen interest in building large
and small storage tanks. Anantraj Sagar tank was built with a 1.37 km long earthen dam
across the Maldevi river. The well-known Korangal dam was built under King
Krishnadevraya. The Bahamani rulers (1388-1422 A.D.) introduced canal irrigation for the
first time in the eastern provinces of the Deccan. Sultan Zain Uddin (1420-1470 A.D.)
introduced extensive network of canals in Utpalpur, Nadashaila, Bijbihara and Advin areas of
Kashmir.
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5. 2.5 WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE
Though the large number of reservoirs and tanks built in different times by the Kings, village
communities and individuals were mainly for irrigation, these also provided water for the
cattle and domestic use either directly or indirectly through charging of wells. In fact, wells
were invariably built close to the tanks, lakes, canals etc. In the arid and semi-arid areas of
northwest India, rain water was collected in underground storage tanks called Tanka, Kunds
or Kundis. However, the first known construction of a Kund was in 1607 by Raja Sur Singh
in village Vadi-Ka-Melan. In 1755, Maharaja Udai Singh built a large Kund in his fort at
Jodhpur. Subsequently, during the famine of 1895-96 construction of these storage structures
was taken up on a large scale.
The city of Delhi, founded in the early eleventh century near the present Suraj Kund in
Haryana, used to get its water supply from Suraj Kund, which was built to impound rain
water from the Aravalli hills. During the Sultanate period that followed, several cities were
built in the vicinity of the Aravallis and all these had elaborate rain water harvesting systems
to meet the domestic water requirements. The prominent among these is the Hauz-e-Sultani
built by Sultan Iltutmish (1210-1236 A.D.).
In 1615, during the Mughal rule, Abdul Rahim Khan built a unique water supply system of
the Burhanpur town (Madhya Pradesh). The system involved construction of long lines of
underground tunnels with vertical airshafts to tap the underground water flow from the
nearby Satpura hill ranges to the Tapi river lower down. The system is still functioning well
and is adequate to meet the entire water requirements of the town.
Engineering Marvel of Burhanpur
6
6. Air Shaft in Original Condition (left) and after repair (right)
Series of Air Shafts
Horizontally Dug Water Channels (Tunnels)
7
7. Villagers use these Air Shafts like wells as water flows through the tunnels
throughout the year
During 4th and 8th Century Dasmatisagar was built near Titlagarh in Orissa. During the same
period two large reservoirs were built in Mayurbhanj district. The erstwhile Patna state also
had 6 major reservoirs for water supply. All these were zealously maintained and cattle
grazing and agriculture were not permitted in their vicinity.
Under the Nizam Shahi Kings (1490-1635 A.D.) 15 channels were built to supply water to
the city of Ahmadnagar from deep wells at the foot of the nearby hills. Similar systems were
built by various Kings for the towns of Vadgaon, Junnar, Karad etc.
In the low rainfall areas of present-day Karnataka a large number of tanks were built during
the 15th Century for both irrigation and drinking water, prominent among these were the
Kempambudhi, Dharmambudhi, Sampangi and Siddikatte Kere tanks built by Kempe
Gowda.
The city of Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) has a glorious tradition of tanks built by its ruler
Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah in the 16th Century. The first source of water supply to the town
was the Hussain Sagar lake built by Hussain Shah Wali in 1562. In the hills near Daulatabad,
two reservoirs were built by the Hindu Kings, in ancient times to meet the water requirements
of the city.
A number of tanks were built in Palanpur, Ahmedabad, Bharuch, Surat and Vadodara areas
of Gujarat during the 15th Century for both irrigation and drinking water.
8
8. 2.6 WATER FOR FORTS AND PLACES OF WORSHIP
All forts, built in different terrains and climatic conditions, had elaborate arrangements for
drinking water. Those built on hilltops or in rocky terrain depended mainly on rain water
harvested from surrounding hills. The Amber Fort near Jaipur built about three centuries ago
is a classic example of such a system. It has an automatic arrangement for desilting and
aeration of harvested rain water before its entry into the large storage tank. The Jodhpur fort
in western Rajasthan had water harvesting arrangements to tap both rain water and
groundwater. The Panhala Fort of Maharaj Shivaji built on a hillock near Kolhapur in
Maharashtra had Baolis and wells to tap underground springs originating in nearby higher hill
slopes. The fort at Chittor on top of a hill has a large reservoir formed from the harvested
waters of springs.
Baolis to tap underground springs in Panhala Fort
At the Buddhist site of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) dating back to the 3rd Century B.C., there
are three ancient tanks to store rain water from the hill slopes.
Ancient Tanks on the Buddhist site of Sanchi dating back to the 3rd Century B.C.
9
9. Most of the old temples in south India built centuries ago have large tanks in their premises.
These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs. In
Tamil Nadu alone there are 39 temple tanks with areas varying from 0.25 to 3 hectares. These
are all fed by rain water. Though these were used mainly for bathing and religious purposes,
these also recharged the drinking water wells.
Spring Water Harvesting in Fort of Chittor
Baori Constructed in the Fort of Raisen
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10. 2.7 ROLE OF COMMUNITIES AND INDIVIDUALS
In those days, centuries ago, the state built only large storages essentially for irrigation and
water supply for the capital cities and important towns. These were obviously not enough and
therefore the village communities and individuals were encouraged to build their own water
harvesting devices to meet their basic domestic requirement of water. The communities being
closely knit had a strong culture of providing voluntary labour and material contributions for
building these facilities for the common good. The social norms for civilized behaviour,
interalia, enjoined on the community members to maintain these facilities, conserve and
protect water from pollution and ensure its equitable and fair distribution.
Social scientists, historians and scholars have found that there was no problem of water
scarcity where the community organizations were strong and the people relied upon their own
efforts to build water harvesting structures. On the other hand, the situation was bad where
the people depended entirely on the state for water.
2.8 LESSONS FROM HISTORY
This in short, is the history of our glorious tradition of water harvesting by the village
communities and individuals with strong support and encouragement from the state. More
importantly this history reflects the ingenuity and wisdom of our forefathers who made
harvesting of water and its management an integral part of the native culture and community
life. This meant that these practices were perceived by the common man as his sacred duty
and by the communities as part of good local self-governance and social responsibility. This
Water-Wisdom at all levels of society ensured adequate availability of water for all, which in
turn, formed the basis for all round development and prosperity. Let us revive and expand
this old wisdom for the benefit of all our people especially in the rural areas. We can do it.
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