Extended essay

AMAL BINTI MOHAMAD HASSAN 818776 1
EXTENDED ESSAY – INDUCTIVE MODEL OF INSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Teaching models represent prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish
particular teaching goals. They describe the process of specifying and producing particular
environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change
occurs in his behavior. Teaching model is a pattern or plan which can be used to shape a
curriculum or course, to select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions. Models
are designed to attain specific goals. When a teacher identifies a goal, selects a particular strategy
designed to attain that goal, we can say that he is using model approach. A model of teaching
consists of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. It specifies ways of
teaching and learning that are intended to attain certain kinds of goals.
Inductive thinking model provides backbone to the social sciences curriculum and is
based on the work of Taba (1967), a curriculum theorist. Taba concludes that thinking skills
should be taught using specific teaching strategies designed for those thinking skills.
Furthermore, these strategies need to be used sequentially because one thinking skill builds on
the other. The main focus of the model is to develop the mental abilities and give emphasis on
concept formation. This involves cognitive tasks in concept formation. Taba identifies three
inductive thinking tasks and then develops three teaching strategies to induce those tasks. Each
task represents a stage in the inductive thinking process as Taba describes it. The first is concept
formation (the basic teaching strategy), the second is interpretation of data, and the third is the
application of principles. Concept Formation involves identifying and enumerating the data that

are relevant to a problem, grouping those items according to some basis of similarity and
developing categories and labels for the groups. Taba’s second teaching strategy is interpretation
of data which is built around the mental operations she refers to as interpreting, inferring, and
generalizing. The third cognitive task around which Taba builds a teaching strategy is that of
applying principles to explain new phenomena (predicting consequences from conditions that
have been established). In all the nine phases, the classroom climate is conducive to learning and
is cooperative. Taba provides the teacher with clear guidelines for reacting and responding
within each phase. Teacher’s job is to help the students in dealing with more complex data and
information. Taba designed this model to create inductive thinking among learners.
OVERVIEW OF THE ARTICLES
1) Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Curriculum Development: Inductive Models. Schooling,
2(1).
This article incorporated the inductive model in the development of our
educational curriculum. Models can assist curriculum developers to conceptualize the
development process by pinpointing certain principles and procedures. Three models are
presented in this article which is the Taba’s instructional strategies model, Weinstein and
Fantini’s humanistic model, and Eisner’s systemic-aesthetic model. In the meantime, a
curriculum model evolved that is applicable to many types of curricula and that can be used
in many different kinds of school settings and school levels such as elementary school,
middle school, and high school. The model includes an organization of, and relationships
among, five mutually interactive elements which are the objectives, content, learning

experiences, teaching strategies, and evaluative measures where a system of teaching and
learning is represented. Inductive models provide a unique approach to curriculum making as
compared to the traditional deductive models, which are linear and prescriptive. Furthermore,
inductive models could incorporate a postmodern view of curriculum, because they are
temporal and naturalistic.
2) Renninger, K. A. (2009). Interest and Identity Development in Instruction: An
Inductive Model. Educational Psychologist, 44(2), 105–118.
This article is about how inductive model affect the interest and identity
development of human being. The proposed of inductive model to the interest and
identity development in instruction builds on theory and research suggesting that, to
promote change, the educator needs information about the phase of learner interest as
well as the stage of learner identity development. The model suggests that information
about interest and identity development could usefully inform the design of tasks,
exhibits, and activities, instructional conversations, and expectations for learner
participation and achievement. An inductive model is one that builds on evidence and
needs to be tested in order to be refined. It is a middle ground between anecdotal or case
description and a model that has already been refined through experimentation. It
describes indicators that have emerged from the theoretical literature and research
findings. It provides a basis for hypothesis-generation, and for subsequent testing. For the
proposed inductive model, working definitions of both interest and identity are reviewed,
and evidence from the literature is discussed, followed by research directions that are
needed to challenge and refine the model.

3) Billing, H. (2013). Effect of Inductive Thinking Model on Achievement Motivation
of Students in Relation to their Learning Approach. International Journal of
Education and Psychological Research (IJEPR), 2(4), 49-59.
This article is about the achievement goals that can affect the way a person
performs a task and represent a desire to show competence. The characteristics associated
with student achievement are an emphasis on teaching basic skills, high expectations for
student achievement, frequent evaluation of student progress, a safe and orderly school
climate, and educational leadership and motivation. Certainly the desire of a student to
excel helps him go a long way in the journey of transacting his/her learning objective.
4) Simin Chalipa (2013). The Effect of Inductive Vs Deductive Instructional Approach
in Grammar Learning Of ESL Learners. The International Research Journal, 2(2).
This article is comparing whether inductive or deductive model is more effective
in teaching grammar. Teaching grammar has been a controversial issue for centuries. As
grammar learning has main role in language learning, knowing which process and
methodology has more effect and impact on grammar learning has more importance. The
effectiveness of deductive and inductive approaches, aiming at maximizing the students'
opportunity to practice thinking skills, has been investigated in empirical studies, but
which one is more effective and can help students to learn more effectively. The aim of
this study is to investigate whether various rule explication techniques should precede or
follow a focus on the use of grammatical forms.

5) Xuan Jiang & Perkins, K. (2013). A Conceptual Paper on the Application of the
Picture Word Inductive Model Using Bruner's Constructivist View of Learning and
the Cognitive Load Theory. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(1),
8-17.
This article presents an analysis of the Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM)
through the lenses of Bruner’s (1960, 1967) structure of learning, spiral curriculum, and
discovery learning and Sweller’s (1988) Cognitive Load Theory. Readers who are not
familiar with the PWIM may know and use the Linking Language strategy, a well-
received English Language Learner (ELL) approach for generating student discussion
and introducing new words by linking them to background knowledge and prior
experience. Both the PWIM and Linking Language strategy use pictures to illustrate the
concepts being introduced and students are asked to identify what they see in the pictures.
ELL teachers who are not familiar with the PWIM may want to consider using this model
in their classrooms. Although the PWIM exemplifies Bruner’s constructs of learning, its
use in the classroom could lead to a cognitive overload, which is explained by the
Cognitive Load Theory.
EFFECT OF INDUCTIVE MODEL IN THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development can be defined as the process of planning, implementing, and
evaluating curriculum that ultimately results in a curriculum plan. One way of developing a
curriculum plan is through modeling. Models are essentially patterns that serve as guidelines to
action. Models can be found for almost every form of educational activity. The education

profession has models of administration, of supervision, of instruction, of evaluation, and others.
There are models of curriculum development as well. Using a model to develop curriculum can
result in greater efficiency and productivity. By examining models for curriculum development,
we can analyze the phases essential to the process. Hilda Taba (1962) reversed the commonly
accepted procedure for curriculum development by suggesting that instead of developing a
general plan for the school program as the scholars in the tradition of deductive models do, it
would be more profitable to begin with the planning of teaching-learning units. In such a system,
teaching-learning units would provide the basis for the curriculum design. Thus, the curriculum
would emerge from the instructional strategies.
Taba’s model contains within it a number of innovative aspects such as specificity in
determining objectives and content, learning experiences selected and organized in accordance
with specified criteria, teaching strategies that specify a variety of methods and technology, and
an elaborate array of evaluative procedures and measures. Factors external to the model that may
affect its internal components are also represented. Such factors include the nature of the
community in which the school is located (its pressures, values, and resources), the policies of
the school district, the nature of a particular school (its goals, resources, and administrative
strategies), the personal style and characteristics of the teachers involved, and the nature of the
student population. Objectives help to provide a consistent focus for the curriculum, to establish
criteria for the selection of content and learning experiences, and to guide and direct evaluation
of learning outcomes. At the same time that objectives, content, and learning experiences are
being selected and organized, teaching strategies must also be planned and developed. The
process of determining objectives begins with the development of overall goals, originating from
a variety of sources (for example, the demands of society, the needs of students, and the social

science disciplines). It also broken down into behavioral statements, classified in terms of the
kinds of student outcomes expected (for example, the development of thinking skills, the
acquisition, understanding and use of important elements of knowledge, and the like) and
justified on the basis of a clearly thought out rationale.
A variety of objective format devices have been prepared to measure the effectiveness of
the curriculum in helping students to explain or recognize causal relationships, apply in new
settings important generalizations developed in the curriculum, and to interpret social science
data. Several open-ended devices have been designed to measure the quality of students’
generalizations, the flexibility and variety of students’ conceptualizations, and the variety and
nature of the content that students use in response to open-ended questions. A coding scheme has
been developed and used to analyze teacher-student discussions as to the levels of thinking that
they exhibit, similar to Bloom and others’ taxonomies. Whatever the virtues of a school’s
curriculum, the quality of teaching ought to be a primary concern of school improvement. To
treat teaching as an art requires a level of scrutiny, assistance, and support that any performing
art deserves. Schools need to be places that serve teachers so that they can serve students.
EFFECT OF INDUCTIVE MODEL IN THE INTEREST AND IDENTITY
DEVELOPMENT
Both interest and identity develop in relation to available experiences and to how learners
perceive, understand, and represent these experiences. The shared dependence on experience of
both interest development and identity development provides the basis for suggesting the utility
of more explicitly considering their relation in instructional practice, particularly for instructing

learners in earlier phases of interest development, or those who do not yet identify with content
to be learned. Interest, in this sense, is both a cognitive and affective motivational variable that
develops, is experienced-based, and is not necessarily age-related as in other words, a young
person and an adult can have either a situational interest or individual interest for science,
although what is of interest to each may differ. Interest is initially triggered and supported to
develop based on the physical, social, psychological, and biological characteristics of the learner
and develops through four phases which are triggered situational interest, maintained situational
interest, emerging individual interest, and well-developed individual interest. In each phase,
interest develops through a process of “triggering”. It is the interactions or circumstances that
can result in the reorganization of learner thinking by promoting uncertainty, surprise, novelty,
complexity, or incongruity about the content in question. In earlier phases of interest triggers
might include group work in the classroom or a personally meaningful context. In later phases,
triggers might include content-informed scaffolding or one’s own curiosity questions.
Interest development is specifically described in terms of phases instead of stages,
because without support and possibilities for challenge, even well-developed individual interest
may go dormant, regress, or disappear altogether. Interest in all phases of development needs to
be cultivated and sustained. When present, interest for content impacts learners’ choices about
how to spend time, the goals they set, and the activities in which they engage. Learners of all
ages are generally ready to work with feedback and prioritize their activity in ways that allow
their learning to deepen when they have well-developed individual interest. Findings also
indicate, however, that educator’ expectations about the observed “interest” of learners can be
misinformed if they attribute positive value or exclamations of fun to the existence of more
developed phases of interest. In such instances, the learners could develop and deepen interest

but may not yet have enough knowledge to respond to feedback and opportunities that would
lead them to the kind of curiosity questions and goal-setting characteristic of more developed
phases of interest. They also may not have enough context, meaning, or ability to rationalize the
self-regulation required to ultimately experience the joy of answering content-related questions.
In everyday usage, identity describes a person’s domain general sense of self with
reference to groups or particular content. It is often assessed across contexts to describe ongoing,
age-related cognitive and affective developments in a person’s thinking, decision making, and
response to challenge. A learner’s identity is conceptualized as the product of all earlier
interactions with others responses to these interactions and how these interactions are understood
because identity evolves through interaction, it is also responsive to intervention and can be
supported to change. Identity, or one’s identities to be more accurate, is considered to evolve as
part of the cognitively and affectively informed self-system and is understood to be both
informed and regulated by culture and context.
The inductive model suggests that in earlier phases of interest development, learners may
be most likely to benefit from external supports that trigger and help to sustain their interests if
the triggers account for likely age-related vulnerabilities. In later phases of interest development,
learners already have questions about the content and understand that work with the discipline
involves open questions that will lead them to challenge their ideas. Thus, external support needs
to trigger the learner to stretch thinking about the content. To the extent that learners identify
with the content to be learned, they are not likely to be as vulnerable to comparisons with the
competencies of others as peers in earlier phases of interest development. They are not
vulnerable in the sense that they do not question their ability to pursue work with the content.
They may well be competitive with others, and vulnerable because of achievement goals. The

model builds on the suggestion that interest can develop and deepen and that educators are
positioned to support this process.
EFFECT OF INDUCTIVE MODEL ON ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
Achievement motivation is based on reaching success and achieving all of our aspirations
in life. Achievement goals can affect the way a person performs a task and represent a desire to
show competence. Achievement motivation is a social form of motivation involving a
competitive drive to meet the standard of excellence. Achievement motivation has been
conceptualized in many different ways. Our understanding of achievement-relevant effects,
cognition, and behavior has improved. Despite being similar in nature, many achievement
motivation approaches have been developed separately, suggesting that most achievement
motivation theories are in concordance with one another instead of competing. A number of
factors have been linked with achievement motivation. The five most commonly mentioned
characteristics associated with student achievement are an emphasis on teaching basic skills,
high expectations for student achievement, frequent evaluation of student progress, a safe and
orderly school climate, and educational leadership.
Students’ approaches to learning describe whether they engage in learning environment
with learning matters. The educational area describes two fundamental approaches to learning
which are deep and surface. The deep approach is characterized by student’s interest in learning
and his/her connection with previous or new ideas, events and conclusions. Deep learners try to
understand the real meaning of concepts. The surface approach is characterized by student’s lack

of interest in the subject matter and memorization of exam knowledge. That approach regard
learning as an external state.
EFFECT OF INDUCTIVE MODEL IN TEACHING GRAMMAR
Research into language learning has considerably enriched our understanding of the
processes that take place in the classroom and the factors that influence them. Most researchers
agree that, for optimal learning to occur, students need to exert a conscious effort to learn. Their
teachers should activate the students' minds spontaneously and involve them in problem solving
and critical thinking. According to Anderson's (1990) cognitive theory, learners are better able to
understand details when they are subsumed under a general concept. Anderson further states that
the quality of learning depends on how well the basic concept is anchored. In short, greater
stability of the basic concepts results in greater learning. A number of research studies have
reported that learners need ample opportunities for communication use so that they can integrate
separate structures into given concepts for expressing meanings. Thinking skills operate
effectively when students voice their analysis and take part in the learning process occurring in
the classroom. Methodologists also argue that learners in the classroom should experience
creative reflections through which the teacher probes their understanding to elicit answers for the
questions he or she poses. In this way, students can lay the foundations for their internal
representation of the target language, which can allow effective learning to function properly.
Many researchers such as Chaudron (1988) further document the benefits of involving students
in the learning process. These investigators found that students taught by teachers who actively
involved them in lessons achieved at higher rates than those in traditional classes. As we can see,

these two methods are completely different and simultaneous use of both is impracticable. The
rift that divides them finds, obviously, reflection in the results that they produce.
The effectiveness of inductive approaches, aiming at maximizing the students'
opportunity to practice thinking skills, has been investigated in empirical studies. Inductive
learning is where learners are not taught rules directly, but are left to discover or induce rules
from their experience of using the language. Inductive is known as a 'bottom up' approach. In
other words, students discover grammar rules while working through exercises. Inductive
grammar teaching is based on trial and error, experiments. The learners learn from trying
different things, seeing what works and what does not. Through experimenting they figure out
the grammatical rules. Inductive method can be used solely by an experienced and competent
teacher who knows his students well enough to be able to adjust the instruction to their needs and
capacities. The superiority of inductive method over deductive one can only be utilized if one has
profound insight into teaching techniques and possesses deep knowledge of students’ patterns of
thinking and approaching new structures. It is also of paramount importance to know when and
how to help learners, what can be done to aid them in coming up with a particular rule and how
to do that efficiently. An inductive approach comes from inductive reasoning stating that a
reasoning progression proceeds from particulars (that is, observations, measurements, or data) to
generalities (for example, rules, laws, concepts or theories). In short, when we use induction, we
observe a number of specific instances and from them infer a general principle or concept. In
general the advantages of inductive approach can be summarized as rules where learners
discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have
been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and
serviceable.

EFFECTIVENESS OF PICTURE WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL (PWIM)
The PWIM is an inquiry-oriented inductive language arts strategy, which focuses on
early literacy. It is based on Calhoun’s (1999) research and is designed to teach K-6 children
phonics and spelling, explicitly and inductively. The intent of the PWIM is to capitalize on
children’s ability to think inductively and generalize the basis of structural and phonetic analysis.
The purpose of the strategy is to develop vocabulary word concepts and paragraph and sentence
structures in the general education areas of mathematics, reading, science, and social science. A
picture word chart is the principal component of the curriculum content and it contains a picture
and the words that the students will identify or “shake out” of the picture. The instructional
sequence of the PWIM strategy calls for the cycling and recycling of pictures and words through
various instructional activities.
PWIM Instructional Sequence
i. Select a picture.
ii. Ask students to identify what they see in the picture.
iii. Label the picture parts identified. (Draw a line from the identified object or areas, say the
word, write the word; ask students to spell the word aloud and then to pronounce it).
iv. Read and review the picture word chart aloud.
v. Ask students to read the words using the lines on the chart if necessary and to classify the
words into a variety of groups. Identify common concepts, for instance, beginning
consonants, rhyming words, etc. to emphasize with the whole class.
vi. Read and review the picture word chart (say the word, spell it, and say it again).
vii. Add words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks.

viii. Lead students into creating a title for the picture word chart. Ask students to think about
the information on the chart and what they want to say about it.
ix. Ask students to generate a sentence, sentences, or a paragraph about the picture word
chart. Ask students to classify sentences; model putting the sentences into a good
paragraph.
x. Read and review the sentences and paragraphs.
According to Calhoun (1999), one of the advantages of the PWIM strategy is that it
assists students in seeing and inferring patterns and relationships in the language, which should
enable them to apply and transfer this learning to novel words. Another principle of the strategy
is that students are given numerous opportunities to make generalizations that will assist them in
mastering the rule-governed behavior principles of the language (e.g., draw generalizations). The
PWIM embodies Bruner’s role of structure in learning. This model helps learners bridge a
transition between old and new knowledge by first identifying what they see in a picture, which
activates existing schema (old knowledge) and then by adding words to the picture word chart
and to the word banks. In addition, as learners engage in inductive thinking and review the
picture word chart, they bridge knowledge “encountered earlier and later”.
CONCLUSION
From the overall of these five articles that I had already read, I found out that inductive
models contribute a lot to our educational system. It contribute to the development of the
curriculum, it enhance humans’ identity and interest and it motivate students’ achievement.
Inductive model also contribute to the acquisition of vocabulary that leads to master in

languages. Calhoun (1999) came out with the theory of Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM)
which I thought very useful to the process of children early learning. Therefore, it had been
proven that inductive model is a very useful and effective model in delivering knowledge to the
students. It contributes a lot in upbringing the human resources that have critical thinking and
inquiry-based mind which eventually produce intellectual and knowledgeable community.

REFERENCES
Billing, H. (2013). Effect of Inductive Thinking Model on Achievement Motivation of Students
in Relation to their Learning Approach. International Journal of Education and
Psychological Research (IJEPR), 2(4), 49-59.
Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Curriculum Development: Inductive Models. Schooling, 2(1).
Renninger, K. A. (2009). Interest and Identity Development in Instruction: An Inductive Model.
Educational Psychologist, 44(2), 105–118.
Simin Chalipa (2013). The Effect of Inductive Vs Deductive Instructional Approach in Grammar
Learning Of ESL Learners. The International Research Journal, 2(2).
Xuan Jiang & Perkins, K. (2013). A Conceptual Paper on the Application of the Picture Word
Inductive Model Using Bruner's Constructivist View of Learning and the Cognitive Load
Theory. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(1), 8-17.

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