The document summarizes the evolution of plants through geological time based on the fossil record. It discusses how early land plants evolved from green algae and were initially small thalloid organisms. Over time, plants developed vascular tissues, leaves, roots, seeds and other structures that allowed them to diversify and form forests. Major developments included the evolution of trees in the Devonian period and the appearance of seed plants in the Triassic period. The evolution of seeds was a key innovation that drove the spread of plants into new habitats.
Gnetum: A Powerpoint Presentation on Gymnospemsshivduraigaran
The Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants (spermatophytes) that includes conifers (Pinophyta), cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός gymnos, "naked" and σπέρμα sperma, "seed"), meaning "naked seeds". The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or solitary as in Yew, Torreya, Ginkgo.
The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants. The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla. Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as Coniferophyta) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct.
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo biloba (a single living species). Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of micorrhiza(Pinus), while in some others(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria.
Gnetum is a genus of gymnosperms, the sole genus in the family Gnetaceae and order Gnetales. They are tropical evergreen trees, shrubs and lianas. Unlike other gymnosperms, they possess vessel elements in the xylem. Some species have been proposed to have been the first plants to be insect-pollinated as their fossils occur in association with extinct pollinating scorpion flies. Molecular phylogenies based on nuclear and plastid sequences from most of the species indicate hybridization among some of the Southeast Asian species. Fossil-calibrated molecular-clocks suggest that the Gnetum lineages now found in Africa, South America and Southeast Asia are the result of ancient long-distance dispersal across seawater
From its initiation in 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has focused on the production of an ever-more stable system of classification of the flowering plants (angiosperms). Based largely on analyses of DNA sequence data, the system is compiled by a larger group of experts than any previous system and has the advantage of being testable, allowing for confidence levels in the system to be estimated for the first time.
Bryophyte is a traditional name used to refer to all embryophytes (land plants) that are non-vascular plants such as mosses, liverworts etc.
The defining feature of bryophytes is that they do not have true vascular tissue. Although some do have specialized tissues for the transport of water, they are not considered to be true vascular tissue since they do not contain lignin.
There are about 25,000 different species of bryophytes in the world today.
Even though these plants are small in size, they are one of the largest groups of land plants and can be found almost everywhere in the world.
In this presentation, concept of xerophytes, types of xerophytes and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are explained.
Gnetum: A Powerpoint Presentation on Gymnospemsshivduraigaran
The Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants (spermatophytes) that includes conifers (Pinophyta), cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός gymnos, "naked" and σπέρμα sperma, "seed"), meaning "naked seeds". The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or solitary as in Yew, Torreya, Ginkgo.
The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants. The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla. Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as Coniferophyta) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct.
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo biloba (a single living species). Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of micorrhiza(Pinus), while in some others(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria.
Gnetum is a genus of gymnosperms, the sole genus in the family Gnetaceae and order Gnetales. They are tropical evergreen trees, shrubs and lianas. Unlike other gymnosperms, they possess vessel elements in the xylem. Some species have been proposed to have been the first plants to be insect-pollinated as their fossils occur in association with extinct pollinating scorpion flies. Molecular phylogenies based on nuclear and plastid sequences from most of the species indicate hybridization among some of the Southeast Asian species. Fossil-calibrated molecular-clocks suggest that the Gnetum lineages now found in Africa, South America and Southeast Asia are the result of ancient long-distance dispersal across seawater
From its initiation in 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has focused on the production of an ever-more stable system of classification of the flowering plants (angiosperms). Based largely on analyses of DNA sequence data, the system is compiled by a larger group of experts than any previous system and has the advantage of being testable, allowing for confidence levels in the system to be estimated for the first time.
Bryophyte is a traditional name used to refer to all embryophytes (land plants) that are non-vascular plants such as mosses, liverworts etc.
The defining feature of bryophytes is that they do not have true vascular tissue. Although some do have specialized tissues for the transport of water, they are not considered to be true vascular tissue since they do not contain lignin.
There are about 25,000 different species of bryophytes in the world today.
Even though these plants are small in size, they are one of the largest groups of land plants and can be found almost everywhere in the world.
In this presentation, concept of xerophytes, types of xerophytes and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are explained.
Bryophytes comes from the Greek word “Bryo” meaning “Moss” and “Phyte” meaning “Plant” They are eukaryotic plant-like organism without vascular system. They consist of about 20,000 plant species.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
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Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
2. GEOLOGICAL TIME
• The total life span of the earth from its origin is called
geological time
• The available evidence indicate that the age of earth is
5000 million (5 billion) years
• Geologists have divided the geological time into different
divisions based on the different types of fossils available
in the different strata of the earth
• Each division has its own duration and feature and it
differs from other divisions
3. • Major divisions are called eras
• Eras are divided into periods and periods into epochs
• The eras, periods, and epochs of the geological time
are arranged in an orderly manner and this
arrangement is called geological time scale
6. • Evidence for the appearance of the first land plants
occurs in the Ordovician
• In the form of fossil spores
• Land plants began to diversify in the Late Silurian
(430 million years ago)
• By the middle of the Devonian, many of the features
recognized in plants today were present, including
roots and leaves.
7. • Late Devonian free-sporing plants
such as Archaeopteris had secondary
vascular tissue that produced wood
and had formed forests of tall trees
• Also by late Devonian, Elkinsia, an
early seed fern, had evolved seeds
•Most plant groups were
relatively unscathed by the
Permo-Triassic extinction event
•The structures of communities
changed
9. • set the scene for the appearance of the flowering
plants in the Triassic (~200 million years ago)
• diversification in the Cretaceous and Paleogene
• The latest major group of plants to evolve were the
grasses, which became important in the mid-
Paleogene, from around 40 million years ago.
• The grasses, as well as many other groups, evolved
new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low
CO2 and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the
last 10 million years.
10.
11.
12. • Land plants evolved from a
group of green algae
• Their closest living relatives
are the charophytes
• This means that the land
plants evolved from a
branched, filamentous alga
dwelling in shallow fresh
water, perhaps at the edge
of seasonally desiccating
pools
CHARALES
13. • The first evidence of plants on land
comes from spores of mid-Ordovician
age
• These spores, known as cryptospores,
were produced either singly (monads),
in pairs (dyads) or groups of four
(tetrads)
• Their microstructure resembles that of
modern liverwort spores, suggesting
they share an equivalent grade of
organisation
• Their walls contain sporopollenin
14. • The earliest megafossils of land plants were thalloid
organisms, which dwelt in fluvial wetlands
• They are found to have covered most of an early
Silurian flood plain
• They could only survive when the land was
waterlogged
• There were also microbial mats
15. • When plants reached land, to escape from dessication,
→ bryophytes avoid it or give in to it
→ tracheophytes bear a waterproof outer cuticle layer
• since a total covering would cut them off from CO2 in the
atmosphere tracheophytes rapidly evolved stomata, small
openings to allow, and control the rate of gas exchange
• Tracheophytes also developed vascular tissue to aid in the
movement of water within the organisms
16. • Tracheophytes moved away from a gametophyte
dominated life cycle
• Vascular tissue also facilitated upright growth without
the support of water and paved the way for the
evolution of larger plants on land
18. • Alternation of Generations = haploid gametophytes
produces sex cells by mitosis. Gametes unite to from
a diploid zygote, which develops into diploid
sporophyte that develops haploid spores by meiosis
19. HAPLOID TO DIPLOID
Gametophyte
Haploid gamete producing body
Sporophyte
Diploid product of fused gametes
Spore
Resting structure
The most recently evolved groups produce seeds and
pollen grains which were the key innovations that
allowed the seed plants to spread widely into diverse
habitats.
22. Algae = some have no sporophyte or only the zygote
Mosses = gametophyte is green leafy and sporophyte
is small and short lived
Ferns = sporophyte is the fronds of the ferns,
gametophyte is smaller yet independent
Seeded plants = male and female gametophytes are
microscopic and produce gametes to form sporophyte
embryo
24. • Early plants transported water within the porous walls
of their cells
• Later, they evolved the ability to control water loss
(and CO2 acquisition) through the use of a waterproof
cuticle perforated by stomata that could open and
close to regulate evapotranspiration
• Specialised water transport tissues subsequently
evolved, first in the form of hydroids, then tracheids
and secondary xylem, followed by vessels in
flowering plants
VASCULAR TISSUES
25. • Transition from poikilohydry to
homoiohydry opened up new
potential for colonisation
26. • Leaves today are, in almost all instances, an
adaptation to increase the amount of sunlight
that can be captured for photosynthesis
• probably originated as spiny outgrowths to
protect early plants from herbivory
LEAVES
27. • Based on their structure,
they are classified into two
types:
→ microphylls – lacks
complex venation patterns
→ megaphylls – large and
have complex venation
MEGAPHYLLS
28. • Theories explaining the evolution of these
structures:
Walter Zimmerman’s telome theory
Wolfgang Hagemann’s alternative
Rolf Sattler’s theory
29. • The early Devonian landscape was devoid of
vegetation taller than waist height
• Without the evolution of a robust vascular system,
taller heights could not be attained
• Advantages:
→ harvesting of more sunlight for photosynthesis
→ spore distribution
TREE FORM
30. • may be demonstrated by Prototaxites, thought
to be a Palaeozoic fungus reaching eight
metres in height
• The first plants to develop secondary growth,
and a woody habit, were apparently the ferns
• The Middle Devonian one species, Wattieza,
had already reached heights of 8 m and a tree-
like habit
31. • The Late Devonian Archaeopteris, a precursor to
Gymnosperms reached 30 m in height
• These progymnosperms were the first plants to
develop true wood
32. • Rhizoids – small structures performing the same role
as roots, usually a cell in diameter are recognised in
the Characeae
• Roots and rootlike structures became increasingly
more common and deeper penetrating during the
Devonian
ROOTS
33. • Lycopod trees forming roots around 20 cm long
during the Eifelian and Givetian
• These were joined by progymnosperms, which rooted
up to about a metre deep, during the ensuing Frasnian
stage
• True gymnosperms and zygopterid ferns also formed
shallow rooting systems during the Famennian
34. • The first spermatophytes the first plants to bear true
seeds – are called pteridosperms: literally, “seed
ferns”
• so called because their foliage consisted of fern-like
fronds, although they were not closely related to ferns
• They all bore ovules, but no cones, fruit or similar
SEEDS
35. • This seed model is shared by basically all
gymnosperms most of which encase their seeds in a
woody cone or fleshy aril but none of which fully
enclose their seeds
• The angiosperms are the only group to fully enclose
the seed, in a carpel
• Fully enclosed seeds paved way for seed dormancy
36. • The embryo could survive some years of drought
before germinating
• Late Carboniferous period is associated with the entry
into a greenhouse earth period, with an associated
increase in aridity
• This suggests that dormancy arose as a response to
drier climatic conditions, where it became
advantageous to wait for a moist period before
germinating