This document summarizes epidemiological research on Parkinson's disease (PD) and associated risk factors. It finds that while the exact cause of PD is unknown, risk increases with age and is higher in males. Several genetic and environmental factors may also contribute to risk, including family history, head trauma, agricultural work, and low folate levels. The prevalence and incidence of PD varies globally but increases with age, affecting approximately 1% of those over 60.
The high risks of lipids and its relevance towards the development of different cardiovascular diseases has been known to all where this present slide focuses on that only along with the different treatment procedures,.
The high risks of lipids and its relevance towards the development of different cardiovascular diseases has been known to all where this present slide focuses on that only along with the different treatment procedures,.
A blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle. A heart attack is a medical emergency.A heart attack usually occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow to the heart.Without blood,tissues loses oxygen and dies
These slides were used for discussion in B. Pharmacy 2nd year Pharmacotherapy theory class. Students are suggested to refer textbooks for further information.
This presentation is about heart, it tells about how Cardiac muscles produce rhythmical beats, how the impulse are generated and conducted. This presentation tries to make Electrocardiogram easy to understand. Thank you
A blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle. A heart attack is a medical emergency.A heart attack usually occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow to the heart.Without blood,tissues loses oxygen and dies
These slides were used for discussion in B. Pharmacy 2nd year Pharmacotherapy theory class. Students are suggested to refer textbooks for further information.
This presentation is about heart, it tells about how Cardiac muscles produce rhythmical beats, how the impulse are generated and conducted. This presentation tries to make Electrocardiogram easy to understand. Thank you
Parkinson’s: What Do We Know About the Disease and What Can Be Done About It?asclepiuspdfs
ABSTRACT
In this article, I aim to answer important questions regarding Parkinson’s disease and the associated dementia. While the
disease was identified and described over a century ago, we still have not as yet been able to ferret out its root cause,
notwithstanding the tremendous progress made in recent years. Like for many other diseases, it is believed to involve three
main causal components (inherited genetics, environmental influences, and, to a much lesser extent, lifestyle choices),
which collectively determine if someone will develop the disease. I will survey its signs, symptoms (motor and non-motor),
risks, and stages, distinguishing between the disease’s early- and late-onset. While discriminating between the disease and
its associated dementia, I will localize the latter within the broad spectrum of dementias. I will also describe what happens
to the brain as the disease takes hold and evolves. A number of medical conditions called Parkinsonisms may have one or
more of their signs and symptoms mimicking Parkinson’s. I will discuss them in some detail, including their five proposed
mechanisms (protein aggregation in Lewy bodies, disruption of autophagy, mitophagy, neuroinflammation, and breakdown
of the blood–brain barrier). I will further describe the approach to diagnosis, prediction, prevention, and prognosis. While
there is no cure and treatment for each affected person, motor symptoms are managed with several medications (Levodopa
always combined with a dopa decarboxylase inhibitor and sometimes also with a catechol-O-methyltransferase [COMT]
inhibitor, dopamine agonists, and monoamine oxidase-B [MAOB]-inhibitors) and eventually surgical therapy. Numerous
pharmaceutical agents are also available for individual non-motor symptoms (L-Dopa emulsions, non-ergot dopamine
agonists, cholinesterase inhibitors for dementia, modafinil for daytime sleepiness, and quetiapine for psychosis). Fortunately,
we can track the drug effectiveness with exosomes. Keeping in mind patients and their caregivers/partners, I will outline
available complementary therapies, palliative care, and rehabilitation, measures they can take beyond seeking standard
treatments, and supporting and advocating organizations at their disposal. Finally, I will survey promising new research
vistas in the field.
Epidemiological and genetic theories of schizophrenia.
Who global burden o disease
family studies, twin and molecular studies. kretschmer body build theory and risk of schizophrenia
Chapter 4
Descriptive Epidemiology: Person, Place, Time
Learning Objectives
State primary objectives of descriptive epidemiology
Provide examples of descriptive studies
List characteristics of person, place, and time
Characterize the differences between descriptive and analytic epidemiology
Descriptive vs. Analytic Epidemiology
Descriptive studies--used to identify a health problem that may exist. Characterize the amount and distribution of disease
Analytic studies--follow descriptive studies, and are used to identify the cause of the health problem
2
Objectives of Descriptive Epidemiology
To evaluate and compare trends in health and disease
To provide a basis for planning, provision, and evaluation of health services
To identify problems for analytic studies (creation of hypotheses)
3
Descriptive Studies and Epidemiologic Hypotheses
Hypotheses--theories tested by gathering facts that lead to their acceptance or rejection
Three types:
Positive declaration (research hypothesis)
Negative declaration (null hypothesis)
Implicit question (e.g., to study association between infant mortality and region)
4
Mill’s Canons of Inductive Reasoning
The method of difference--all the factors in two or more places are the same except for a single factor.
The method of agreement--a single factor is common to a variety of settings. Example: air pollution.
5
Mill’s Canons (cont’d)
The method of concomitant variation--the frequency of disease varies according to the potency of a factor.
The method of residues--involves subtracting potential causal factors to determine which factor(s) has the greatest impact.
6
Method of Analogy
(MacMahon and Pugh)
The mode of transmission and symptoms of a disease of unknown etiology bear a pattern similar to that of a known disease.
This information suggests similar etiologies for both diseases.
Three Approaches to Descriptive Epidemiology
Case reports--simplest category of descriptive epidemiology
Case series
Cross-sectional studies
Case Reports and Case Series
Case reports--astute clinical observations of unusual cases of disease
Example: a single occurrence of methylene chloride poisoning
Case series--a summary of the characteristics of a consecutive listing of patients from one or more major clinical
Example: five cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
7
Cross-sectional Studies
Surveys of the population to estimate the prevalence of a disease or exposure
Example: National Health Interview Survey
Characteristics of Persons Covered in Chapter 4
Age
Sex
Marital Status
Race and ethnicity
Nativity and migration
Religion
Socioeconomic status
Age
One of the most important factors to consider when describing the occurrence of any disease or illness
8
Trends by Age Subgroup
Childhood to early adolescence
Leading cause of death, ages 1-14 years—unintentional injuries
Infants—mortality from developmental problems, e.g., congenital birth defects
Ch ...
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
7. Origins of Parkinson’s
• Parkinson's disease was first formally described
in "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy," published in
1817 by a London physician named James
Parkinson
• It has probably existed for many thousands of
years
• Symptoms and potential therapies mentioned in:
• Ayurveda, the system of medicine practiced in India as
early as 5000 BC
• First Chinese medical text, Nei Jing, which appeared
2500 years ago
8. Etiology
• The cause of Parkinson’s disease is unknown.
• Many researchers believe that several factors
combined are involved: free radicals, accelerated
aging, environmental toxins, and genetic
predisposition.
9. What Causes Parkinson's?
• Why an individual develops Parkinson's
disease remains unclear.
• The cause is probably a combination of
genetic and environmental factors, and may
vary from person to person.
• Although the cause of Parkinson's remains
unknown, scientists have identified factors
that contribute to Parkinson's in some
patients.
• People over age 60 have a two-to-four percent risk
of developing Parkinson's disease, compared with
the one-to-two percent risk in the general
population.
11. On a cellular level
• Studies have shown that the accumulation of a protein alpha
synuclein in the neurons lead to the formation of lewy bodies
which inhibit the transmission of dopamine from one neuron
to other.
• Over production of alpha synuclein is related to mutaion in
the SYNCA gene.
13. Prevalence
How many people have PD?
Estimated 1 million patients in US
Second most common age-related
neurodegenerative disorder
Second in frequency only to Alzheimer’s disease
World-wide estimates vary
15/100,000 in China
657/100,000 in Argentina
100 - 250/100,000 in North America and Europe
Prevalence is predicted to triple over the next 50
years as average age of population increases.
14. Incidence
Quantifies the number of individuals who
are newly diagnosed with PD in a given time
period
Unaffected by factors affecting disease
survival
Accurate measurements of the incidence of
PD are relatively difficult
Clinical manifestations of PD may be preceded by a long
latent stage and have a slow clinical progression
15. Incidence
Difficult to know how many people are diagnosed each year:
Symptoms may develop and progress slowly
Diagnostic criteria may vary
Patient populations vary with respect to doctor visits
16. Incidence
China: 1.5/100,000
Finland: 14.8/100,000
US: 20/100,000
Variations may be due to different diagnostic criteria and
methods of case ascertainment in studies
Lifetime risk of PD: 1 in 40
17. Age
The incidence of PD increases with age
Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease may appear at any age
The median age of onset for idiopathic PD is 62.4 years
Onset before age 30 is rare, but up to 10% of cases of
idiopathic PD begin by age 40
18. Age
• Prevalence increases with age from age 50-90
• Affects 0.3% of general US population
• Affects 3% of those older than 65
• Aging alone does not cause PD
• May increase susceptibility to other factors or allow
them to be expressed
19. Gender
Slightly more common in men than in women
Estimated 12-15 men for every 10
women
20. Ethnicity
Present worldwide, in all populations
No region found to be free of PD
More common in white people in Europe
and North America
(100-350/100,000)
Lower rates in China, Nigeria and Sardinia
The disorder occurs in all races but is
somewhat more prevalent among Caucasians
21. Ethnicity
Generally less common among African-
Americans and Asians
one-fifth to one-tenth as prevalent as in whites
In Africa less common among blacks than
whites
Door-to-door screening in Mississippi
PD prevalence was not significantly different in whites and
blacks after adjusting for age differences (poor diagnostic
criteria)
Higher prevalence in whites with stronger diagnostic
criteria
22. Ethnicity
Two other studies conducted
PD incidence in African-Americans and in Asian-
Americans was similar to rates for European-
Americans
Door-to-door survey in Taiwan
Prevalence of PD =119/100,000
Similar to that of a white population and much
higher than that of previous studies of Asian
populations
23. Ethnicity
Differences in findings
Suggest environmental factors
more important than racial factors
Further studies needed
Other factors?
Differences in access to
healthcare?
24. Ethnicity
• The disease was once thought to affect
primarily whites, but recent studies have
demonstrated equal prevalence in African
Americans and whites living in the same
geographic area.
• Comparative epidemiologic studies performed
in various major cities have yielded
contradictory information.
• Variations in the prevalence of the disease in
individual racial groups in different geographic
areas have suggested an increased risk
associated with rural living.
25. Time
Hard to evaluate
Few studies that track over long period of time
Studies might use different methods or have
different diagnostic criteria
Two studies different conclusions
Greater awareness - well-known people have
developed PD
26. Time
Study in Olmsted, Minnesota
1935-1988
Tracked number of people diagnosed with
PD each year
1935-1944: 9.2/100,000 diagnosed
1975-1984: 16.3/100,000 diagnosed
27. Time
NIH study of world-wide PD trends
Statistically controlled for age differences
Concluded that the prevalence and incidence of PD appear to
have remained unchanged over the past 40 years.
28. Definition of a risk factor-
Risk factor is anything that increases your chances of getting
sick or having a problem. The onset of Parkinson’s disease is a
multi factorial process. However even if you have several
known risk factors, you might still not have PD(Parkinson’s
disease).
29. In July 2004, THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HEALTH
(NIH)reported that more than two dozen genetic risk factors
involved in PD have been identified, among which 6 were such
which were reported for the first time. In a small number of
cases worldwide, there is a strong inheritance pattern for the
disease. In such cases the development of the disease is
basically due to an environmental toxin present or trauma or
an illness.
30. • Age
• Sex
• Family history
• Declining oestrogen level
• Agricultural work
• Levels of B vitamin folate
• Head trauma
• Free radicals
31. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Advancing age-
Cases of young age development of the disease
has been noticed although the actual symptoms
occurs at a later age and keeps on getting worse
as one gets older. Researches have shown that
people with Parkinson’s have neural defects
which keeps getting worse as one gets older.
32. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Sex-
Males are at higher risk of getting Parkinson’s disease than
females. Reason for this being that males are most exposed to
factors such as-head trauma or environmental toxins.
Researches have shown that oestrogen have neuro-protective
functions hence females are at lesser risk.
33. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Familial history-
Having one or more closely related family member affected
by the disease increases your risk of developing the disease
too. But to a minimal degree. This lends support to the idea
that Parkinson’s Disease has a genetic link.
34. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Declining oestrogen level-
• As a woman attains menopausal age, the levels of
oestrogen in the body decreases.
• As it known that oestrogen has neuro-protective functions,
low levels of oestrogen might result in the development of the
disease. Women not opting for hormone replacement
therapies are particularly ar risk.
35. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Agriculture work-
Agricultural work expose you to several environmental toxins
which may cause PD as they inhibit dopamine production and
promote free radical damage. Farmers are at high risk due use
of pesticides and other chemicals.
36. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Low levels of B vitamin folate-
Researchers have studied that mice which have a low level of
this vitamin develop severe Parkinson’s Disease whereas mice
with a normal level do not develop.
37. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Head trauma-
Recent studies have found a link between injury to the head,
neck and cervical spine and Parkinson’s disease. In 2007,60
patients show trauma-induced upper cervical damage. Some
patients remembered a particular incident others did not. In
some cases Parkinson’s symptoms took decades to appear.
38. FFAACCTTOORRSS AASSSSOOCCIIAATTEEDD WWIITTHH
PPAARRKKIINNSSOONN’’SS DDIISSEEAASSEE
Free radicals-
Usually free radicals are formed in body and brain but they
eventually they are flushed out of the body due to mechanisms of
the brain and body. People with Parkinson’s disease don’t have
such mechanisms to flush out such free radicals. Environmental
toxins contribute to abnormal increase in free radicals and increase
in risk of Parkinson’s Disease.