point source and non poinr source in water pollution Thomas Chinnappan
This document discusses point source and non-point source water pollution. Point source pollution originates from discrete, confined sources like pipes or ditches. It includes wastewater from municipal treatment plants and industrial discharges. Non-point pollution has diffuse, intermittent sources and is influenced by land use and climate. It includes runoff carrying oils, fertilizers and pesticides from urban and agricultural areas. The document outlines methods to control pollution through infiltration, detention, retention, constructed wetlands, filtration and biofilters. It also discusses regulations aimed at point sources and voluntary efforts to address non-point sources.
This document discusses various topics related to ocean floor topography including continental margins, oceanic divisions, submarine canyons, ocean currents, the Coriolis effect, tidal currents, ocean waves, and how waves can cause coastal erosion. It describes key features of passive and active continental margins and how the ocean floor transitions from the continental shelf to deeper ocean basins and trenches.
Ocean sediments originate from various sources and accumulate on the ocean floor. The main sources are weathering of continental rocks, volcanic eruptions, biological activity, chemical processes within the ocean crust and seawater, and impacts from extraterrestrial objects. Sediments are classified based on their origin, size, and composition. The most abundant sediment types are terrigenous sediments derived from weathering of land areas, and biogenous sediments composed of the remains of marine organisms.
structure and composition of lithosphereDebasis Ray
The document discusses the lithosphere, which is the outermost solid shell of the Earth composed of the crust and upper mantle. It is divided into three main sections. The first section introduces the lithosphere and describes its composition and structure. The lithosphere consists of oceanic and continental crust and the upper mantle. The second section discusses various geological processes that affect the lithosphere like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and plate tectonics. The third section describes the chemical composition and types of rocks found in the lithosphere.
This document discusses arsenic pollution of groundwater in Bangladesh. It provides background on arsenic as a toxic inorganic metal pollutant and carcinogen. A case study of arsenic pollution in West Bengal, India is presented, where arsenic naturally present in bedrock leached into groundwater used for drinking. This caused widespread arsenic poisoning among the population. Symptoms included skin lesions and diseases, as well as liver, kidney and circulatory damage. Suggestions are made to prevent further pollution through safe chemical use and waste disposal, along with educating communities about arsenic risks in groundwater.
The document discusses groundwater contamination and depletion in the state of Gujarat and cities like Kanpur in India. It provides details on the status of groundwater in various districts in Gujarat, including those that are overexploited, critical or semi-critical. It notes the major groundwater quality issues in different districts. It also discusses how factors like excessive pumping, unregulated waste disposal and lack of rainwater harvesting are leading to a lowering of the water table in many areas in India.
Gravity pulls the rocks, soils and debris on a downward slope, naturally, without any chemical change. This downward movement is called as mass -movement or mass-wasting.
Landslides, mudflows and rockfalls are all belonging to this category of geomorphic processes.
Mass-wasting may lead to severe natural disasters by affecting the life and building structures in different places. Understanding of mass-wasting will certainly help to mitigate the impacts of these hazards and plan the development activities.
it was my first presentation.it would be helpfull for engineering students as well as the reasearch scholars.in this slides i used best of my effort .
so please visit my slideshare and dont forget to give feedback......
point source and non poinr source in water pollution Thomas Chinnappan
This document discusses point source and non-point source water pollution. Point source pollution originates from discrete, confined sources like pipes or ditches. It includes wastewater from municipal treatment plants and industrial discharges. Non-point pollution has diffuse, intermittent sources and is influenced by land use and climate. It includes runoff carrying oils, fertilizers and pesticides from urban and agricultural areas. The document outlines methods to control pollution through infiltration, detention, retention, constructed wetlands, filtration and biofilters. It also discusses regulations aimed at point sources and voluntary efforts to address non-point sources.
This document discusses various topics related to ocean floor topography including continental margins, oceanic divisions, submarine canyons, ocean currents, the Coriolis effect, tidal currents, ocean waves, and how waves can cause coastal erosion. It describes key features of passive and active continental margins and how the ocean floor transitions from the continental shelf to deeper ocean basins and trenches.
Ocean sediments originate from various sources and accumulate on the ocean floor. The main sources are weathering of continental rocks, volcanic eruptions, biological activity, chemical processes within the ocean crust and seawater, and impacts from extraterrestrial objects. Sediments are classified based on their origin, size, and composition. The most abundant sediment types are terrigenous sediments derived from weathering of land areas, and biogenous sediments composed of the remains of marine organisms.
structure and composition of lithosphereDebasis Ray
The document discusses the lithosphere, which is the outermost solid shell of the Earth composed of the crust and upper mantle. It is divided into three main sections. The first section introduces the lithosphere and describes its composition and structure. The lithosphere consists of oceanic and continental crust and the upper mantle. The second section discusses various geological processes that affect the lithosphere like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and plate tectonics. The third section describes the chemical composition and types of rocks found in the lithosphere.
This document discusses arsenic pollution of groundwater in Bangladesh. It provides background on arsenic as a toxic inorganic metal pollutant and carcinogen. A case study of arsenic pollution in West Bengal, India is presented, where arsenic naturally present in bedrock leached into groundwater used for drinking. This caused widespread arsenic poisoning among the population. Symptoms included skin lesions and diseases, as well as liver, kidney and circulatory damage. Suggestions are made to prevent further pollution through safe chemical use and waste disposal, along with educating communities about arsenic risks in groundwater.
The document discusses groundwater contamination and depletion in the state of Gujarat and cities like Kanpur in India. It provides details on the status of groundwater in various districts in Gujarat, including those that are overexploited, critical or semi-critical. It notes the major groundwater quality issues in different districts. It also discusses how factors like excessive pumping, unregulated waste disposal and lack of rainwater harvesting are leading to a lowering of the water table in many areas in India.
Gravity pulls the rocks, soils and debris on a downward slope, naturally, without any chemical change. This downward movement is called as mass -movement or mass-wasting.
Landslides, mudflows and rockfalls are all belonging to this category of geomorphic processes.
Mass-wasting may lead to severe natural disasters by affecting the life and building structures in different places. Understanding of mass-wasting will certainly help to mitigate the impacts of these hazards and plan the development activities.
it was my first presentation.it would be helpfull for engineering students as well as the reasearch scholars.in this slides i used best of my effort .
so please visit my slideshare and dont forget to give feedback......
The document provides an overview of the structure and composition of the Earth's interior based on evidence from seismology and other studies. It describes the different layers from outer to inner as:
1) The lithosphere and crust, composed mainly of silicate rocks with densities around 3.5.
2) The mantle, extending to a depth of 2900km and divided into upper and lower zones. It has a mean density of 4.6.
3) The core, extending from 2900km to the center. It is divided into a liquid outer core and solid inner core, and has the highest densities in the Earth ranging from 10 to 13.6.
Geomorphology and its application to hydrogeologysuchi4
The document discusses various aspects of fluvial geomorphology and their implications for hydrology, including:
1) Descriptions of different channel patterns such as braided, meandering, and anastomosing and the hydrological conditions associated with each.
2) Landforms such as alluvial fans, natural levees, and deltas that form at the interface between rivers and floodplains and influence hydrology.
3) How the geomorphology of limestone terrain, such as the presence of joints and solution features, impacts permeability and hydrology.
4) Several assessment methods for evaluating environmental flows, sediment impacts, and wetland functioning from a watershed perspective.
1. DEFINITIONS OF OCEANOGRAPHY:-
2. Branches of oceanography
3. Nature of Oceanography
4. A Geographical approach into Oceanography
5. Importance of Oceanography
6. Contribution of oceanographers
7. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
The document summarizes the morphology and features of the ocean floor. It describes key features such as continental margins consisting of continental shelves, slopes, and rises. It also discusses ocean basins and their abyssal plains and hills, as well as mid-ocean ridges, trenches, seamounts, and guyots that form undersea volcanoes. Plateaus and island arcs are also mentioned. In conclusion, the ocean floor varies significantly in shape and size due to ongoing crustal movements from plate tectonics.
The document summarizes the key processes and features of a river system from its source to mouth. It describes how a river can be divided into an upper, middle and lower course, each with distinctive characteristics. The main river processes of erosion, transportation and deposition help shape the channel and valley over time. Erosion occurs through attrition, abrasion, solution and hydraulic action. Transportation methods depend on sediment size and energy levels, ranging from traction and saltation to suspension. Deposition forms features when energy levels drop, with the largest sediments deposited first.
The document discusses environmental geology and geologic hazards. It covers several topics: (1) the module will encompass environmental challenges like waste disposal and groundwater contamination, geologic hazards such as floods and earthquakes, geologic resources, and global climate change; (2) geology is an interdisciplinary science relating to Earth's composition, structure and lifeforms; (3) humans rely on geology for food, water, building materials and energy resources; (4) environmental geology applies geologic information to land use planning and minimizing environmental degradation. It also discusses natural hazards like landslides, their causes, and importance of understanding hazards to prevent loss of life and property.
The study of physical oceanography helps in understanding all these aspects in detail. Let us see most of these factors and processes in our future modules. Mathematical models of all these processes are also developed using these phenomena and mechanisms. The individual aspects of all the elements of physical oceanography are to be studied in detail.
Bangladesh is at high risk for earthquakes due to its location between three tectonic plates - the Indian, Eurasian, and Burma plates. The country is divided into three zones based on earthquake risk - high, moderate, and low. Several faults pose risks, including the Bogra, Tripura, Sub Dauki, Shillong, and Assam faults, with the potential for quakes up to magnitude 8.5. Earthquake risks are increased by Bangladesh's large population, unplanned construction, weak infrastructure, lack of awareness and preparedness. Several government and non-government organizations are working to mitigate earthquake risks.
Geochemical cycle and mobility of elementsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical concepts relevant to mineral exploration, including the geochemical environment, cycle, dispersion, and mobility of elements. It describes the deep-seated and surfacial environments and how materials move between them in the geochemical cycle. Mobility depends on factors like viscosity and particle size. Hypogene mobility occurs under high pressure-temperature conditions, while supergene mobility is influenced by siliceous or sulfide environments at the surface. Indicator and pathfinder elements are discussed for detecting targeted ore deposits.
The document summarizes the key spheres that make up Earth's biosphere - the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and anthrosphere. It then discusses Biosphere 2, an artificial closed ecosystem experiment in Arizona meant to study interactions within a biosphere. The experiment identified issues like too much CO2 and not enough O2 or food production. It also summarizes the major biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus that are vital to life on Earth.
This document provides an overview of fluvial geomorphology and floodplains. It discusses how rivers erode, transport, and deposit sediment, forming various fluvial landforms like alluvial fans, floodplains, and deltas. Floodplains are formed through vertical accretion, lateral accretion, and channel abandonment. They support rich ecosystems but also experience flooding that interacts with human settlements. India has several major flood-prone river basins, and floods annually cause billions in damage, affected millions of hectares and thousands of lives.
The document discusses the hydrosphere, which is the total amount of water on Earth including oceans, ice, freshwater, and water vapor. It describes the major components of the hydrosphere like oceans, glaciers, freshwater, and atmospheric water vapor. Tables provide data on the volumes and percentages of total water contained in oceans, ice, underground aquifers, lakes, and the atmosphere. The document also outlines the different zones of the oceans from the epipelagic zone at the surface to the deepest hadalpelagic zone, and notes some characteristic animals found in each zone.
Political geography is concerned with the relationship between political processes and spatial structures. It focuses on how political systems influence and are influenced by the distribution of resources, events, and groups across different political units from local to international levels. Political geography examines key concepts such as territory, territoriality, the state, and social and political processes. It considers how these concepts interact and how they shape the physical environment. Political geography takes a scientific, artistic, and philosophical approach to understand these interactions and connections between politics and geography.
Groundwater pollution occurs when pollutants make their way into groundwater and contaminate it. A pollutant plume spreads through an aquifer, intersecting with groundwater wells or daylighting into surface water. Pollution can come from septic systems, landfills, wastewater treatment plants, petrol stations, agriculture, and naturally occurring contaminants. Protecting groundwater requires preventing pollution through monitoring aquifers and landfills, replacing old fuel tanks, and strictly regulating toxic waste disposal.
Seas and oceans are very huge bodies of saline waters. Their distribution and dynamics are very influential in several ways. Understanding the properties of seawater is inevitable in oceanographic studies. Seawater is one of the most fascinating and plentiful substances on the planet. The basic properties of seawater and their distribution, the interchange of properties between sea and atmosphere or land, the transmission of energy within the sea, and the geochemical laws which are governing the composition of seawater and marine sediments, are the fundamental aspects studied in the subject oceanography.
There are two main types of cyclones: tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones. Tropical cyclones form in tropical regions between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, originating from warm, moist air masses. Temperate cyclones, also known as extra-tropical cyclones, form in temperate regions between 30-60 degrees latitude due to the convergence of warm and cold air masses along fronts. Some key differences are that tropical cyclones are smaller in size but more intense, with stronger winds near the surface, while temperate cyclones are larger but less severe, with strongest winds at higher elevations.
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and removal of beach sediments by wave action, tidal currents, and other processes. Coasts are classified as primary, shaped by land erosion, or secondary, shaped by marine agents. Erosional coasts experience active erosion while depositional coasts experience sediment accumulation from rivers or oceans. Waves, tides, currents, and coastal dynamics shape shorelines through erosion, transportation, and deposition, forming landforms like sea stacks, arches, caves, spits, barrier islands, and deltas. The rate of coastal destruction varies depending on slope, wave intensity, wind, and human activities and can damage habitats.
Temperature and it’s distribution(ocean)Tanuj Joshi
This document discusses the horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature in oceans. It notes that ocean temperatures are highest at the equator (26.7°C on average) and decrease towards the poles. Factors like latitude, ocean currents, prevailing winds, local weather, and depth influence ocean temperatures. Temperature decreases with depth but not uniformly, dropping more rapidly in the top 200m (photic zone) and leveling off below 2000m. The thermocline zone between 300-1000m marks the transition between warmer surface waters and colder deeper waters.
Erosion is when wind, water, and ice take sediments away.
Erosion on coasts by wind and water.
Water is major agent of erosion.
About 21% of all erosion in done by coastal erosion.
This document outlines 9 fundamental concepts in geomorphology. It introduces geomorphology as the description and interpretation of earth's landforms. Some key concepts discussed are:
- The principle of uniformitarianism, which states that geological processes have operated consistently over time, though intensities may have varied.
- Geological structure strongly influences landform evolution and is reflected in topography.
- Individual geomorphic processes leave distinctive imprints and develop characteristic landform assemblages.
- Landforms develop through successive stages as erosional processes act on the earth's surface over time.
- Most of the world's topography developed during the Pleistocene and is influenced by past geological and climatic changes.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in environmental chemistry and the environment. It defines the environment as all external factors that affect organisms, including other living things and non-living variables like water, soil and climate. It then describes the main components that make up the environment - the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthrosphere. The document goes on to explain each of these environmental spheres in 1-2 paragraphs.
It's a piece of work which will be quite helpful for undergraduate or higher secondary students. Other may have a look. Actually it's a copy of one of my chemistry course's assignments. Have fun and download it.
The document provides an overview of the structure and composition of the Earth's interior based on evidence from seismology and other studies. It describes the different layers from outer to inner as:
1) The lithosphere and crust, composed mainly of silicate rocks with densities around 3.5.
2) The mantle, extending to a depth of 2900km and divided into upper and lower zones. It has a mean density of 4.6.
3) The core, extending from 2900km to the center. It is divided into a liquid outer core and solid inner core, and has the highest densities in the Earth ranging from 10 to 13.6.
Geomorphology and its application to hydrogeologysuchi4
The document discusses various aspects of fluvial geomorphology and their implications for hydrology, including:
1) Descriptions of different channel patterns such as braided, meandering, and anastomosing and the hydrological conditions associated with each.
2) Landforms such as alluvial fans, natural levees, and deltas that form at the interface between rivers and floodplains and influence hydrology.
3) How the geomorphology of limestone terrain, such as the presence of joints and solution features, impacts permeability and hydrology.
4) Several assessment methods for evaluating environmental flows, sediment impacts, and wetland functioning from a watershed perspective.
1. DEFINITIONS OF OCEANOGRAPHY:-
2. Branches of oceanography
3. Nature of Oceanography
4. A Geographical approach into Oceanography
5. Importance of Oceanography
6. Contribution of oceanographers
7. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
The document summarizes the morphology and features of the ocean floor. It describes key features such as continental margins consisting of continental shelves, slopes, and rises. It also discusses ocean basins and their abyssal plains and hills, as well as mid-ocean ridges, trenches, seamounts, and guyots that form undersea volcanoes. Plateaus and island arcs are also mentioned. In conclusion, the ocean floor varies significantly in shape and size due to ongoing crustal movements from plate tectonics.
The document summarizes the key processes and features of a river system from its source to mouth. It describes how a river can be divided into an upper, middle and lower course, each with distinctive characteristics. The main river processes of erosion, transportation and deposition help shape the channel and valley over time. Erosion occurs through attrition, abrasion, solution and hydraulic action. Transportation methods depend on sediment size and energy levels, ranging from traction and saltation to suspension. Deposition forms features when energy levels drop, with the largest sediments deposited first.
The document discusses environmental geology and geologic hazards. It covers several topics: (1) the module will encompass environmental challenges like waste disposal and groundwater contamination, geologic hazards such as floods and earthquakes, geologic resources, and global climate change; (2) geology is an interdisciplinary science relating to Earth's composition, structure and lifeforms; (3) humans rely on geology for food, water, building materials and energy resources; (4) environmental geology applies geologic information to land use planning and minimizing environmental degradation. It also discusses natural hazards like landslides, their causes, and importance of understanding hazards to prevent loss of life and property.
The study of physical oceanography helps in understanding all these aspects in detail. Let us see most of these factors and processes in our future modules. Mathematical models of all these processes are also developed using these phenomena and mechanisms. The individual aspects of all the elements of physical oceanography are to be studied in detail.
Bangladesh is at high risk for earthquakes due to its location between three tectonic plates - the Indian, Eurasian, and Burma plates. The country is divided into three zones based on earthquake risk - high, moderate, and low. Several faults pose risks, including the Bogra, Tripura, Sub Dauki, Shillong, and Assam faults, with the potential for quakes up to magnitude 8.5. Earthquake risks are increased by Bangladesh's large population, unplanned construction, weak infrastructure, lack of awareness and preparedness. Several government and non-government organizations are working to mitigate earthquake risks.
Geochemical cycle and mobility of elementsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical concepts relevant to mineral exploration, including the geochemical environment, cycle, dispersion, and mobility of elements. It describes the deep-seated and surfacial environments and how materials move between them in the geochemical cycle. Mobility depends on factors like viscosity and particle size. Hypogene mobility occurs under high pressure-temperature conditions, while supergene mobility is influenced by siliceous or sulfide environments at the surface. Indicator and pathfinder elements are discussed for detecting targeted ore deposits.
The document summarizes the key spheres that make up Earth's biosphere - the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and anthrosphere. It then discusses Biosphere 2, an artificial closed ecosystem experiment in Arizona meant to study interactions within a biosphere. The experiment identified issues like too much CO2 and not enough O2 or food production. It also summarizes the major biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus that are vital to life on Earth.
This document provides an overview of fluvial geomorphology and floodplains. It discusses how rivers erode, transport, and deposit sediment, forming various fluvial landforms like alluvial fans, floodplains, and deltas. Floodplains are formed through vertical accretion, lateral accretion, and channel abandonment. They support rich ecosystems but also experience flooding that interacts with human settlements. India has several major flood-prone river basins, and floods annually cause billions in damage, affected millions of hectares and thousands of lives.
The document discusses the hydrosphere, which is the total amount of water on Earth including oceans, ice, freshwater, and water vapor. It describes the major components of the hydrosphere like oceans, glaciers, freshwater, and atmospheric water vapor. Tables provide data on the volumes and percentages of total water contained in oceans, ice, underground aquifers, lakes, and the atmosphere. The document also outlines the different zones of the oceans from the epipelagic zone at the surface to the deepest hadalpelagic zone, and notes some characteristic animals found in each zone.
Political geography is concerned with the relationship between political processes and spatial structures. It focuses on how political systems influence and are influenced by the distribution of resources, events, and groups across different political units from local to international levels. Political geography examines key concepts such as territory, territoriality, the state, and social and political processes. It considers how these concepts interact and how they shape the physical environment. Political geography takes a scientific, artistic, and philosophical approach to understand these interactions and connections between politics and geography.
Groundwater pollution occurs when pollutants make their way into groundwater and contaminate it. A pollutant plume spreads through an aquifer, intersecting with groundwater wells or daylighting into surface water. Pollution can come from septic systems, landfills, wastewater treatment plants, petrol stations, agriculture, and naturally occurring contaminants. Protecting groundwater requires preventing pollution through monitoring aquifers and landfills, replacing old fuel tanks, and strictly regulating toxic waste disposal.
Seas and oceans are very huge bodies of saline waters. Their distribution and dynamics are very influential in several ways. Understanding the properties of seawater is inevitable in oceanographic studies. Seawater is one of the most fascinating and plentiful substances on the planet. The basic properties of seawater and their distribution, the interchange of properties between sea and atmosphere or land, the transmission of energy within the sea, and the geochemical laws which are governing the composition of seawater and marine sediments, are the fundamental aspects studied in the subject oceanography.
There are two main types of cyclones: tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones. Tropical cyclones form in tropical regions between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, originating from warm, moist air masses. Temperate cyclones, also known as extra-tropical cyclones, form in temperate regions between 30-60 degrees latitude due to the convergence of warm and cold air masses along fronts. Some key differences are that tropical cyclones are smaller in size but more intense, with stronger winds near the surface, while temperate cyclones are larger but less severe, with strongest winds at higher elevations.
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and removal of beach sediments by wave action, tidal currents, and other processes. Coasts are classified as primary, shaped by land erosion, or secondary, shaped by marine agents. Erosional coasts experience active erosion while depositional coasts experience sediment accumulation from rivers or oceans. Waves, tides, currents, and coastal dynamics shape shorelines through erosion, transportation, and deposition, forming landforms like sea stacks, arches, caves, spits, barrier islands, and deltas. The rate of coastal destruction varies depending on slope, wave intensity, wind, and human activities and can damage habitats.
Temperature and it’s distribution(ocean)Tanuj Joshi
This document discusses the horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature in oceans. It notes that ocean temperatures are highest at the equator (26.7°C on average) and decrease towards the poles. Factors like latitude, ocean currents, prevailing winds, local weather, and depth influence ocean temperatures. Temperature decreases with depth but not uniformly, dropping more rapidly in the top 200m (photic zone) and leveling off below 2000m. The thermocline zone between 300-1000m marks the transition between warmer surface waters and colder deeper waters.
Erosion is when wind, water, and ice take sediments away.
Erosion on coasts by wind and water.
Water is major agent of erosion.
About 21% of all erosion in done by coastal erosion.
This document outlines 9 fundamental concepts in geomorphology. It introduces geomorphology as the description and interpretation of earth's landforms. Some key concepts discussed are:
- The principle of uniformitarianism, which states that geological processes have operated consistently over time, though intensities may have varied.
- Geological structure strongly influences landform evolution and is reflected in topography.
- Individual geomorphic processes leave distinctive imprints and develop characteristic landform assemblages.
- Landforms develop through successive stages as erosional processes act on the earth's surface over time.
- Most of the world's topography developed during the Pleistocene and is influenced by past geological and climatic changes.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in environmental chemistry and the environment. It defines the environment as all external factors that affect organisms, including other living things and non-living variables like water, soil and climate. It then describes the main components that make up the environment - the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthrosphere. The document goes on to explain each of these environmental spheres in 1-2 paragraphs.
It's a piece of work which will be quite helpful for undergraduate or higher secondary students. Other may have a look. Actually it's a copy of one of my chemistry course's assignments. Have fun and download it.
This document provides an outline for a course on environmental chemistry and pollution. It covers 5 units: introduction and identification of environmental chemistry; atmospheric composition and gaseous pollutants; water pollution; soil pollutants; and medical pollutants. The introduction defines key terms like environment, atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, anthroposphere, flora and fauna. It also discusses factors like population growth, urbanization and industrialization that impact the environment. The document further describes the natural cycles of water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen and how human activities place burdens on the environment.
Soil is formed through the interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is the biologically active, porous medium that develops below the land surface. Soil consists of mineral and organic components, with pore spaces filled with either air or water. As the interface between these spheres, soil impacts ecosystem dynamics and the Earth system as a whole. It is classified based on its horizons, which form layers with different properties over time through soil-forming factors like climate, organisms, relief, and parent material.
Temperature, moisture, length of photosynthetic period, and nutrient availability affect net primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Primary productivity is typically higher in coastal oceans due to nutrient inputs from land. Primary production fuels secondary production by consumers. There are two main food chains: grazing and detrital, with detrital dominating terrestrial ecosystems. Decomposition returns nutrients to the soil and is influenced by temperature, humidity, and oxygen levels. Biogeochemical cycles circulate essential elements through abiotic and biotic components, and nutrients can be lost through export, harvesting, and fire.
The document defines the natural environment as all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth. It describes the key components of the environment as the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. It then goes on to explain each of these components in more detail, including their composition and important cycles and processes within each component, such as the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. It emphasizes that all life depends on healthy functioning of the Earth's natural environment and its critical biogeochemical cycles.
The document discusses major ecosystems of the Earth. It defines an ecosystem as consisting of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that interact. The major ecosystems discussed are aquatic ecosystems including freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems, and terrestrial ecosystems. Specific biomes within terrestrial ecosystems mentioned include alpine, chaparral, and tropical rainforests.
The document discusses environmental studies and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts. It begins by describing the physical elements of the environment including landforms, water bodies, climate, and soils. It then defines the environment as the total set of circumstances surrounding life, including both living and non-living things. Environmental science is described as integrating various sciences to study our life-supporting environment and understand causes and solutions to problems. The document outlines various components of the environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It also discusses the importance of environmental education, awareness, and management.
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth and includes ecological units that function as natural systems without human intervention. It is contrasted with the built environment which is strongly influenced by humans. Earth science recognizes four main spheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere - as well as the cryosphere and pedosphere. The natural environment and its systems, such as the carbon, water, and nitrogen cycles, support life on Earth.
The document provides an overview of environmental management and the components that make up the environment. It discusses the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It also summarizes several important biogeochemical cycles including the nitrogen cycle, water cycle, carbon cycle, and oxygen cycle. The cycles describe the circulation and recycling of key elements like nitrogen, water, carbon, and oxygen between living organisms and their surroundings.
This document discusses ecosystems and the impacts of pollution. It begins by defining an ecosystem and describing its key components and interactions. It then explains how ecosystems function, including energy and nutrient flows. The three main types of ecosystems are described: freshwater, terrestrial, and ocean. Each has unique characteristics and food webs. When an ecosystem is polluted, the natural balance is disrupted, harming organisms. Pollution damages health, environments, and the planet. The remainder of the document discusses ecosystem components in more detail.
Environment may be consider as our surroundings which includes everything around us, i.e. the non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) environment.
The abiotic environment consists of air, water and soil, while the biotic environment includes all the living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) that we regularly come in contact.
Environment – Basic Concepts:
The environment is composed of four basic components:
i. Atmosphere
ii. Hydrosphere
iii. Lithosphere
iii. Biosphere.
This document provides an overview of environmental chemistry. It begins by defining environmental chemistry and describing the key environmental segments of the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. It then discusses environmental quality standards, indicators of pollution including dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, and total dissolved solids. The document outlines the scope of environmental chemistry and notes the need for public awareness of environmental issues.
Soil is the biologically active, porous medium that develops below the land surface as a result of interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. It consists of mineral and organic components, air and water. The pedosphere refers to the envelope where soils occur and soil formation processes are active. Soils form through weathering of parent materials like rock and consist of horizontal layers called horizons that differ in properties. The pedon is the three-dimensional unit of soil.
This document provides an introduction to ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as all the living and non-living things interacting in a given area, with organisms depending on each other and the physical environment. Ecosystems have biotic components like plants, animals and microbes, and abiotic components like air, soil, water and nutrients. The key interactions between living and non-living factors maintain balances like the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Ecosystems can be classified by their environment, such as aquatic ecosystems including wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves, and terrestrial ecosystems like forests and grasslands.
The external infrastructure in the business environmentRyanMontilla3
The document discusses the external infrastructure in the business environment. It defines infrastructure as the basic structures and equipment needed for an organization or region to function properly. It then describes the different components of the ecological system that make up the external infrastructure, including the physical environment (geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere), natural resources, forces of nature, and ecological conditions. It notes that while the environment was created for humans, humans also have a responsibility to maintain a balanced ecology.
This document discusses atmospheric pollutants that impact aquatic ecosystems. It focuses on three categories: organic compounds, mercury, and nutrients. Many organic compounds are persistent, bioaccumulate in organisms, and are toxic. Mercury readily rains from the air into waterways where it can transform into methylmercury, a toxic form that builds up in fish. Atmospheric deposition is a significant source of nutrients like nitrogen to coastal waters, contributing to eutrophication. The effects of these pollutants are intertwined as they are often deposited together, and one may influence the bioaccumulation and impacts of others. The document calls for increased monitoring and regulation of atmospheric sources to reduce harm to the environment and human health.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST(TAT) cognitive abilities, creativity, and critic...
Environmental Segments and Natural/Biogeochemical cycles
1. CHM-406: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Pranshu K. Gupta
M.Sc. Chemistry, 4th Semester,
Roll No.: 29, Enroll. No.: 373379
E-mail: pranshuvns01@gmail.com
Department of Chemistry,
Institute of Science (I.Sc.),
Banaras Hindu University (BHU),
Varanasi-221005, UP, India
ENVIRONMENTAL SEGMENTS
AND NATURAL CYCLES
2. Definition of environment
The circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded
OR
The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (such as climate, soil,
and living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community
and ultimately determine its form and survival
OR
2b: the aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or
community.
- Merriam Webster
Definition of Environmental Chemistry
It is a multidisciplinary science of chemical phenomena in the environment
which studies sources, reaction, transport and effect and fate of chemical
species in the air, water, soil, and the impacts of human activities on these.
- Environmental Chemistry, A.K. De
TO BEGIN WITH ………
3. Definition: The atmosphere is a protective and life sustaining
blanket of gases surrounding the Earth that saves it from
hostility of outer space, by absorbing most of the cosmic rays,
and a major portion of harmful electromagnetic radiations
from sun, and transmitting ultravoilet, visible, infrared
radiations (300-2500 nm) and radio waves (0.14-40 m).
It plays a key role in maintaining Earth’s temperature/heat
balance by absorbing the infrared radiation and re-emitting it
back from the Earth. Major component of Earth’s atmosphere
are N2(71%), O2(21%), while minor components are Ar,
CO2(0.03%), and some trace gases.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide, are the two most dynamic and
most necessary gases that sustain life on Earth and their levels
are ideally maintained by photosynthetic plants. Nitrogen
fixing bacteria utilizes nitrogen fixation to gain their energy
currency.
However, with the progress of science and technology, man
has been dumping waste materials into atmosphere that are
posing serious threat to survival of mankind itself on Earth.
SEGMENT 1 : ATMOSPHERE
Scheme: Major regions of atmosphere, temperature
profile. (Adapted from: Environmental Chemistry, Edn. 7,
pp. 19, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New Age International
(P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
4. Definition: Hydrosphere includes all types of water
resources like seas, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams,
reservoirs, glaciers, polar icecaps and ground water
(i.e., water below Earth’s surface).
About 97% of the Earth’s water supply in in oceans
where high salt concentration makes it unfit for
consumption. About 2% of water resources are
locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers, while only
about 1% is available as fresh water (surface water-
rivers, lakes, streams, and ground water) for human
consumption and other uses.
History of ancient civilization-growth and decline-is
intimately linked with the quantum of water supply.
The major uses of water are for irrigation (30%) and
thermal power plants (50%), while other uses are
domestic(7%) and other consumption(12%).
Surface water gets contaminated by pesticides and
fertilizers and agricultural runoff water, human and
animal wasters in sewage and industrial wastes.
Water borne from sewage alone have killed million
of people in developing countries.
Aquatic environment chemistry is based on proper
understand of the sources, transport, characteristics
and chemical species of water.
SEGMENT 2: HYDROSPHERE
97%
2%
1%
Saline water
(Oceans)
Water fit for
consumption
Portable water
locked as polar
ice
70%
8%
2%
12%
8% Evaporation
Irrigation
Domestic Use
Electrical use
Others
Earth’s water
supply
Mass balance of
annual Rainfall
5. Definition: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid Earth, consisting up of
the solid minerals in the Earth crust and the soil.
Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, air and water. The soil
hence is the most important part of the lithosphere.
Soil of land decides its fertility and its agricultural and thus commercial
importance. Fertility of the soil however, depends on the topmost layer of the
soil, rich in dead organic matter, minerals and micronutrients. This layer is
termed as Humus.
The layers found below the humus is shows a decrement in its fertility as one
descends down. However, lower layers have been helpful in as a natural semi-
efficient water purifying system that percolates rainwater to the ground water
at water table.
SEGMENT 3: LITHOSPHERE
6. Definition: This denotes the realm of living organism and their interaction with
living environment, and its other segments like hydrosphere, lithosphere and
atmosphere.
Both Environment and biosphere are influenced considerably by each other.
Example: O2 and CO2 level in atmosphere entirely depends on the plant kingdom.
As a matter of fact, photosynthetic plants are sole responsible for accumulation of
O2 in atmosphere, the original atmosphere has been devoid of oxygen. Biosphere in
its widest context consists of Earth’s crust, atmosphere, various species of life,
which exist in the zone 600 meters above, and 10,000 meters below the sea level.
Being highly complex, biosphere has been divided in smaller units called
ecosystems, that refer to a definite zone where plants, animals and microbes live,
by exhibiting a dynamic interrelationship amongst themselves as well with their
physical environment.
Biogeochemical cycles or Natural cycles represents these dynamic
interrelationships between living forms and their physical environment by
providing a balanced and continuous circulation of life-sustaining constituents,
hence stabilizing biosphere by sustaining life processes.
SEGMENT 4: BIOSPHERE
7. Definition: Anthrosphere may be defined as an man-made part
of the environment, that is part of the environment made or
modified by human activities.
Prehistoric humans made little impact on environment but
industrialization, particularly after Industrial Revolution
(1780), this impact became more and more pronounced as a
separate area in terms of effects on environment s a whole.
UNIT OF ANTHROSPHERE:
1. Structures/houses used for living
2. Structures used for commerce, manufacturing, education and
other activities.
3. Infrastructures including water, fuel and other electricity
distribution systems, waster disposal systems such as sewers.
4. Infrastructure transport: roads, railways, airports and
waterways.
Natural process have led to finely tuned balance among the
systems composing Earth’s natural environment. Life forms on
Earth have influenced Earth’s climate which determine
suitability of life.
SEGMENT 5: ANTHROSPHERE
GAIA HYPOTHESIS
(James Lovelock, British Chemist)
Atmospheric O2/CO2 balance is established
and sustained by organisms which determine
and maintain Earth’s climate and other
environmental conditions. It is essential that
ultimate balance (Man-Environment) is not
upset but is sustained by Man for his own
survival.
8. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL CYCLES
On the basis of its place of occurrence:
1. Endogenic Cycles: Largely occur on sub-surface
rocks. E.g.: Phosphorous cycle
2. Exogenic Cycles: Largely occur on Earth surface.
E.g.: Oxygen, Carbon or Nitrogen cycle
NOTE:
1. Sediments and soil predominant components that connect
endogenic and exogenic cycle.
2. Rocks irrespective of their type weathers to give
soil/sediments, melts to give magma, and revert back to
rocks under pressure-temperature catastrophe.
3. Nutrient from soil or sediments exchange between
lithosphere and hydrosphere, or to atmosphere, or to
biosphere either directly or indirectly from lithosphere to
hydrosphere to atmosphere and then to biosphere by
changing their physical/chemical state. They return back to
soil/sediments either of the forms. This explains the
inherent connectivity between endogenic and exogenic
cycles.
Scheme: The carbon cycle. (Adapted from: Environmental
Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 9, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
9. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL CYCLES
On the basis of its reservoir:
1. Gaseous Cycles: Cycles in which elements spends
most of the cycle in atmosphere.
2. Sedimentary Cycles: Cycles in which elements exists
as dissolved minerals in soil/sediment solution.
NOTE:
1. Sediments and soil predominant components that connect
endogenic and exogenic cycle.
2. Rocks irrespective of their type weathers to give
soil/sediments, melts to give magma, and revert back to
rocks under pressure-temperature catastrophe.
3. Nutrient from soil or sediments exchange between
lithosphere and hydrosphere, or to atmosphere, or to
biosphere either directly or indirectly from lithosphere to
hydrosphere to atmosphere and then to biosphere by
changing their physical/chemical state. They return back to
soil/sediments either of the forms. This explains the
inherent connectivity between endogenic and exogenic
cycles.
Scheme: The carbon cycle. (Adapted from: Environmental
Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 9, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
10. Definition: The Hydrological Cycle is a continuous natural
process, which helps in exchange of water between
atmosphere, the land the sea, living plants and animals.
About 1/3rd of the solar flux is acts as an endless conveyer
belt driving the hydrological cycle via sequential steps like,
evaporation, cloud formation, precipitation, runoff,
percolation, etc, providing us with our supply and reserve of
freshwater.
Normal evaporation from ocean exceeds precipitation by
rain into the seas by about 10% and this excess amount
ultimately moves as water vapour over land surface. This
balances the hydrological cycle, and fulfils our requirement
of additional water.
Each year about 50 Tm3 water evaporates, and then
precipitates over earth surface. From land, about 44.5 Tm3
water flows to sea per year, and this is available as man’s
natural water supply. (NOTE: 1 Terra m3 (Tm3)= 1012 m3)
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Scheme: Concept map for hydrological cycle
11. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
About
1/3rd of
solar
flux
Water reservoir
evaporates by
sunlight
Light condenses the clouds giving
rise to rainfall
Fall of
water on
condensa
tion
Movement
of water
with some
speed Infiltration
to ground
50 Tm3/year
50 Tm3/year
44.5 Tm3/year
Scheme: The hydrological cycle. (Adapted from: Environmental Chemistry, 3 Edn., by
S.E. Manhan, pp. 8, 1979, Willard Grant Press, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company,
Sartler office building, Boston, Massachusetts, Monterery, California-93940, USA.
12. HISTORICAL AND ITS PRESENT SCENNARIO:
History of human civilization reveals that water
supply and civilization are almost synonymous,
and several civilizations and cities have
disappeared due to water shortages originating
from climatic changes.
A very small percentage of fresh water is available
for human consumption. (statistics shown in the
pie chart). Most of the this water is polluted though
agricultural runoff. World Health Organization
(WHO) has estimated that water supply has to be
cut by 50% by 2025 if nation fails to address
imbalance in global water supply and demand.
Nordic company (Norway) is engaged in the
business of towing 35,000 tonnes of
freshwater/day from Turkey to Greek islands using
giant polyester bags of length 200 meters. Future
plans are to transport 1,00,000 tonnes of
freshwater/day from Iran to Saudi Arab via
Caribbean and Red sea using supertankers of
length 300 meters.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
97%
2%
1%
Saline water
(Oceans)
Water fit for
consumption
Portable water
locked as polar
ice
70%
8%
2%
12%
8% Evaporation
Irrigation
Domestic Use
Electrical use
Others
Earth’s water
supply
Mass balance of
annual Rainfall
13. Definition: Carbon cycle operates the circulation of
carbon over various segments of environment in different
physical/chemical states.
An important form of carbon is present as CO2(0.03%) in
atmosphere. Part of it is dissolved in surface water as
HCO3
- ions, that is finally fixed as CO3
-2 minerals at the
bottom of the sea/ocean as limestone.
A part of Carbon is fixed as CH2O (biological carbon) by
photosynthesis, that serve as an important constituent of
biomolecules. Another form of carbon is fixed as lignite,
coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Significance of this cycle is its ability to transfer C from
biological systems to geosphere via geochemical process
as fossil fuels.
Photosynthetic microbes are important carbon fixing
compounds in water bodies that take up CO2 causing
precipitation of CaCO3 and CaCO3.MgCO3, or fossil
fuels.
The scavenging action of microbes maintain carbon
balance by degrading organic biomass, oil spills and
carbon-containing hazardous wastes as CO2, that finally
return to atmosphere.
CARBON CYCLE
Geosphere: Solid Earth upon which humans and other
life beings live and form which they extract their food,
minerals and fuels, and therefore are able to fulfil all
requirements to sustain their livelihood.
Scheme: The carbon cycle. (Adapted from:
Environmental Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 9, by A.K. De and
A.K. De, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers,
New Delhi-11002, India
14. Definition: Oxygen cycle is based on the exchange of
oxygen among various environmental segments, and has
a key role in atmospheric chemistry, geochemical
transformation and life processes.
Atmospheric O2 (21%) is a life sustaining gas for
aerobic respiration, and enzymatic oxidation of organic
food in aerobes, hence sustaining their general
metabolism.
Photosynthetic living beings, are the ultimate source of
O2 sets up the oxygen cycle, by maintaining original O2
stock and its continuous flow. Apart form this, there is a
continuous exchange of O2 between atmosphere and all
water surface on Earth. However, its total amount
remains relatively constant to stabilize O2 cycle.
Oxygen participates in combustion processes,
degradation of organic materials and some weathering
processes. However, the total oxygen stock gets affected
by its consumption, for the combustion of fossil fuels and
reducing gases (CO), released from volcanoes.
OXYGEN CYCLE
Scheme: The oxygen cycle. (Adapted from: Environmental
Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 289, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
15. Oxygen contributes to various processes on Earth surface:
1. Combustion:
C + O2 CO2
CH4 (in natural gas) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
2CO + O2 2CO2 (Consumption of Oxygen stock)
2. Oxidative Weathering of minerals:
4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3
3. Fe2O3 deposits in primitive Earth: Obtained from soluble Fe(II)
4Fe2+ + O2 + 4H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H+
4. Photosynthesis by green plants:
CO2 + H2O + hv [CH2O] + O2 (Original Oxygen stock)
OXYGEN CYCLE
16. “Today nitrogen atom may be throbbing in the cells of the meadow
grass; tomorrow it may be pulsating through the tissue of living animal.
The nitrogen atom afterwards may rise from decaying animal refuse and
stream to the upper regions of the atmosphere where it may be yoked
with oxygen in a flash of lightning and return as plant food to the soil in
a torrent of rain or it may be directly absorbed from atmosphere by the
soil and are rendered available for plant food by the action of symbiotic
bacteria. Thus each nitrogen atom has doubtless undergone a never
ceasing cycle of changes through countless aeons of time”
-- Mellor
NITROGEN CYCLE
17. Definition: Nitrogen cycle maintains essential cycling
of nitrogen over various environmental segments, in
soluble or insoluble form in an ecosystem.
Plants and animals continuously produce proteins, that
are N-containing organic compounds. Death and decay
of plants and animals as well animal excreta comprise a
major load of organic N-containing organic residues.
Some soils microbes like Denitrosomonas,
Denitrobacter, denitrify NO3
- to N2, while other
microbes like Nostoc, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, etc,
perform biologically fix atmospheric N2 to NH3 through
various NO2
-s, and NO3
-s (Addition rate: 4-7 ton/ha/yr;
Fixation rate: 1 ton/ha/yr)
Although freshwater NO3
- leaching may cause some
loss, N cycle is balanced and [N2] remains same.
However, it is misbalanced by dumping of agricultural
wastes at a rate of 40 million tonnes/year. Fresh water
resources get polluted by agricultural runoff i.e.,
leaching of excessive NO3
- from agricultural lands.
NITROGEN CYCLE
Scheme: The nitrogen cycle. (Adapted from: Environmental
Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 11, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
18. Definition: A type of endogenous
sedimentary cycle that balances phosphorous
on lithosphere as well as in hydrosphere, by
circulating through these segments in soluble
or insoluble form.
PO4
-3s is necessary for growth and
maintenance of animal bones and teeth, while
organophosphates (POR4
-3) helps in cell
division and DNA/RNA synthesis.
The ultimate energy currency of plants and
animals that facilitate nutrient derivation via
metabolic pathways is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
This cycle is badly affected by pollution,
mainly from agricultural run-off containing
super PO4
-3s and triple-super PO4
-3s and also
from domestic sewage containing PO4
-3s
derived from excreta and detergents. This
cause algal bloom and accelerated
eutrophication that reduces dO2 in water
disrupting the natural food chain.
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
Scheme: The phosphorous cycle on land. (Adapted from:
Environmental Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 12, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New
Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
On land soluble and insoluble PO4
-3s, stored in rocks/soil are
absorbed as inorganic PO4
-3 via plants, which convert them to
POR4
-3s. Animals consume plants to obtain their share in this
cycle. When dead, these decay, and release these PO4
-3s to
the soil that convert to humus by microbes. Bulk PO4
-3
absorbed on soil particles leach out in to water sources.
19. PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
Scheme: The phosphorous cycle in water. (Adapted from:
Environmental Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 13, by A.K. De and A.K. De, New
Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-11002, India
In water, inorganic PO4
-3s, are absorbed by freshwater phyto-
planktons, which convert them to POR4
-3s. Zoo-planktons
consume phyto-planktons to obtain their share in this cycle.
When dead, both settle at the bottom of oceans, where they
decay, and release these PO4
-3s that recycle again.
Definition: A type of endogenous
sedimentary cycle that balances phosphorous
on lithosphere as well as in hydrosphere, by
circulating through these segments in soluble
or insoluble form.
PO4
-3s is necessary for growth and
maintenance of animal bones and teeth, while
organophosphates (POR4
-3) helps in cell
division and DNA/RNA synthesis.
The ultimate energy currency of plants and
animals that facilitate nutrient derivation via
metabolic pathways is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
This cycle is badly affected by pollution,
mainly from agricultural run-off containing
super PO4
-3s and triple-super PO4
-3s and also
from domestic sewage containing PO4
-3s
derived from excreta and detergents. This
cause algal bloom and accelerated
eutrophication that reduces dO2 in water
disrupting the natural food chain.
20. Definition: An exogenic cycle that circulates sulpher
from atmosphere to biosphere by oxidizing and
reducing it in inorganic form and assimilating it in
organic form.
Sulpher is an important constituent of S-containing
amino acids like cysteine and its dimers. These lead S-
proteins.
Sulpher as S-2s oxidizes to SO4
-2s, via aerial oxidation
in atmosphere. These SO4
-2s are assimilated as cellular
proteins. These plants are consumed by animals and
they get their share of S. On their death, they are
decomposed by S-assimilating microbes releasing S-2s.
In polluted water under anaerobic conditions H2S is
produced by bacteria giving deposits of FeS.
In unpolluted water under aerobic conditions sulpher
bacteria transforms S-2s to SO4
-2s, for production of
proteins.
SULPHER CYCLE
Scheme: The sulpher cycle. (Adapted from:
Environmental Chemistry, Edn. 7, pp. 13, by A.K. De and
A.K. De, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers,
New Delhi-11002, India
21. Environment is a complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (such as climate, soil, and living
things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and
survival. Environmental Chemistry is the It is a multidisciplinary science of chemical phenomena in
the environment which studies sources reaction, transport and effect and fate of chemical species in
the air, water and soil, and the impacts of human activities on these.
The atmosphere is a protective and life sustaining blanket of gases surrounding the Earth that saves
it from hostility of outer space, by absorbing most of the cosmic rays, and a major portion of
harmful electromagnetic radiations from sun, and transmitting ultravoilet, visible, infrared
radiations (300-2500 nm) and radio waves (0.14-40 m).
Hydrosphere includes all types of water resources like seas, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs,
glaciers, polar icecaps and ground water (i.e., water below Earth’s surface).
Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid Earth, consisting up of the solid minerals in the Earth
crust and the soil. Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, air and water. The soil
hence is the most important part of the atmosphere. The topmost layer of the soil is rich in dead
organic matter, minerals and micronutrients. This layer is termed as Humus.
Biosphere denotes the realm of living organism and their interaction with living environment, and its
other segments like hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere has been divided in smaller
units called ecosystems, that refer to a definite zone where plants, animals and microbes live, by
exhibiting a dynamic interrelationship amongst themselves as well with their physical environment.
Anthrosphere may be defined as an man-made part of the environment, that is part of the
environment made or modified by human activities. As per Gaia Hypothesis (James Lovelock,
British Chemist) Atmospheric O2/CO2 balance is established and sustained by organisms which
determine and maintain Earth’s climate and other environmental conditions. It is essential that
ultimate balance (Man-Environment) is not upset but is sustained by Man for his own survival.
SUMMARY
22. Biogeochemical cycles or Natural cycles represents dynamic interrelationship between living forms
and their physical environment by providing a balanced and continuous circulation of life-
sustaining constituents, hence stabilizing biosphere by sustaining life processes.
On the basis of its place of occurrence, natural cycles can be endogenic that largely occur on sub-
surface rocks (E.g.: Phosphorous cycle) and exogenic that largely occur on Earth surface (E.g.:
Oxygen, Carbon or Nitrogen cycle). They are also classified on the basis of reservoir as gaseous and
sedimentary.
Nutrient from soil or sediments exchange between lithosphere and hydrosphere, or to atmosphere,
or to biosphere either directly or indirectly from lithosphere to hydrosphere to atmosphere and
then to biosphere by changing their physical/chemical state. They return back to soil/sediments
either of the forms. This explains the inherent connectivity between endogenic and exogenic cycles.
Normal evaporation from ocean exceeds precipitation by rain into the seas by about 10% and this
excess amount ultimately moves as water vapour over land surface. This balances the hydrological
cycle, and fulfils our requirement of additional water. Each year about 50 Tm3 water evaporates,
and then precipitates over earth surface. From land, about 44.5 Tm3 water flows to sea per year,
and this is available as man’s natural water supply.
Carbon cycle transfer C from biological systems to geosphere (Solid Earth upon which humans and
other life beings live and form which they extract their food) via geochemical process as fossil fuels.
Photosynthetic microbes are important carbon fixing compounds in water bodies that take up CO2
causing precipitation of CaCO3 and CaCO3.MgCO3, or fossil fuels. The scavenging action of
microbes maintain carbon balance by degrading organic biomass, oil spills and carbon-containing
hazardous wastes as CO2, that finally return to atmosphere.
SUMMARY
23. Photosynthetic living beings, are the ultimate source of O2 sets up the oxygen cycle, by maintaining
original O2 stock and its continuous flow. Apart form this, there is a continuous exchange of O2
between atmosphere and all water surface on Earth. However, its total amount remains relatively
constant to stabilize O2 cycle.
Some soils microbes like Denitrosomonas, Denitrobacter, denitrify NO3
- to N2, while other microbes
like Nostoc, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, etc, perform biologically fix atmospheric N2 to NH3 through
various NO2
-s, and NO3
-s (Addition rate: 4-7 ton/ha/yr; Fixation rate: 1 ton/ha/yr). It is
misbalanced by dumping of agricultural wastes at a rate of 40 million tonnes/year. Fresh water
resources get polluted by agricultural runoff i.e., leaching of excessive NO3
- from agricultural
lands.
Soluble and insoluble PO4
-3s, are absorbed as inorganic PO4
-3 via phytological entities like
plants(on land) and phyto-planktons(in water body) which convert them to POR4
-3s. Zoological
entitites like Animals(on land) and zooplanktons(on water body) consume phytological origin to
obtain their share in this cycle. When dead, these decay, and release these PO4
-3s to the soil that
convert to humus, or settle at bottom. Bulk PO4
-3 absorbed on soil particles leach out in to water
sources.
Sulpher as S-2s oxidizes to SO4
-2s, via aerial oxidation in atmosphere. These SO4
-2s are assimilated
as cellular proteins. These plants are consumed by animals and they get their share of S. On their
death, they are decomposed by S-assimilating microbes releasing S-2s. In polluted water under
anaerobic conditions H2S is produced by bacteria giving deposits of FeS. In unpolluted water
under aerobic conditions sulpher bacteria transforms S-2s to SO4
-2s, for production of proteins.
SUMMARY
24. 1. A.K. De, A.K. De, Environmental Chemistry, New Age International (P),
Limited, 7th Edn., 2015 (International Edition).
2. S.E. Manahan, Environmental Chemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl., 8th
Edn., 2005.
3. A.M. Dix, Environmental Pollution, John Wiley, New York, 1980.
4. A. Kashlinsky et al., Nature, 2005, Cited in Independent, London (Nov.
2005).
REFERENCES