The document provides historical context on classical Japanese literature and culture. It discusses: 1) Early Japanese culture was influenced by both indigenous Shinto beliefs and Chinese influences, with the Japanese adapting influences to their own culture. 2) During the Tokugawa Shogunate period, Japan closed itself off from most outside contact for over 200 years, using the period to strengthen itself before opening to the West. 3) After opening to Western influence, Japan rapidly modernized its military and industries, becoming a world power but keeping traditional arts alive as well.

1. INTRODUC'|ION: 1'I,IE C]I.ASSICAL I-IT'ERATURE OF.IAI'AN IN A
H ISTORICAL PER SPECTI VE
The Japanese have a worldwide repulation for being good irnitators: it is often thought
that the entire classical culture of Japan was simply borrowed from China and that in more recent
times the Japanese have distinguished themselves by successfully modernizing Western-style but
doing so more rapidly than any Western country ever did.
But this emphasis on the borrowing and imitating phases of Japanese development is
unfair, for the Japanese have never been blind borrowers. The real talent of these people is that
of adaptation: they have a remarkable ability to take what others offer and to make it their own,
molding it to certain internal features of their indigenous culture and thus creating something
both unique and uniquely Japanese.
At the very base of the indigenous Japanese culture is Shintoism, or "the way of the
spirits." In its primitive form the main element if this religion is a certain joyous response to the
kami, or the awe-inspiring or mysterious qualities of various objects, of either physical of
spiritual natures. The spirits of ancestors have kami, as do unusually beautiful flowers, or
interesting rocks, or magical animals that can talk, or godlike people. The ketmi is thus anything
that rises beyond the mundane and inspires awe in the beholder. Thus early Shintoism is a
religion ofjoy and celebration rather than a religion oriented toward morality.
The cosmology of Shintoism involves the godly pair lzanagi and Izanami, who gave
birth, first, to the Japanese islands and then to a variety of spirits, creatures, fire, winds,
mountains, and so on. The later world is seen mostly in terms of the duality of the sun goddess,
representing peace, light, and order, and the storm god, representing violence, darkness, and
chaos. Later the sun goddess became associated with State Shinto through the person of the
emperor, who is held to be her direct descendant, while the storm god became associated with
magic rites and the mysterious communal sects. The peace-loving sun goddess is to dominate,
but the violent storm-god can never be completely subdued, and under particular circumstances
he may come to the fore.
Chinese cultural influence in Japan was most strong between the sixth and ninth
centuries, during.which time regular embassies were sent from Japan to the Chinese court.
Confucian ideas became irnportant in the Japanese plitical system: they strengthened the
position of the emperor and reinforced hierarchical tendencies of the society. They also seem to
have strenglhened the indigenous Japanese ancestor worship.
But Confucianism never became a religion in Japan as it did in China, and the hey-day of
the Sinicized Japanese court of the Heian period soon gave way before the rising military
strength of the Minamoto clan. The Japanese emperor lost most of his poweis when Yoritomo set
up the shogunate at Kamakura (l192), but he was not deposed or overthrown as he would have
been in China. Instead he was allowed to remain as a "puppet" ruler, while the shogun, the
military leader, function as the "power behind the throne.'
During this time, and in fact well into the Tokugawa period (1601-1867), the feudallstic
tendency, or the tendency away from centralized power into the direction of diverse power
centers based on landownership, was prevalent. These landlords, or dainrsto, had the support of
private armies o.f sannrrai, and they often engaged in feuds with neighboring clans. In 1601 the
Tokugawa Shogunate provided for the first time a strong central power that could combat the
feudal tendency, but local power was still very much in the hands of the daimyo. And the
military traditions of the samurai persisted.

2. It was also during the period of Shogunate rule in Japan that Buddhism came into its own
and in fact took on much greater importance than it ever had in China. Several popular Buddhist
sects gained some mass following during this period: Shingon, Tendai, Amidhist, Nichiren. At
the same time there developed the highly aristocratic and uniquely Japanese form of Buddhism
that was so influential in many aspects of developing Japanese culture: Zen. Perhaps because of
its starkness and simplicity and its complete distrust of intellectualfing, Zen was closely
associated with the militaristic samurai tradition. But it also gave rise to some of the most
delicate and restrained forms of Japanese art. flower arranging and the Noh drama, for example.
Perhaps the most significant feature of the Tokugawa Shogunate was the fact of Japan's
jealously guarded and nearly complete isolation from the rest of the world. From the sevent-eenth
to the nineteenth centuries the doors of Japan were closed by choice, except for some very
limited contact with the Chinese court and with some Dutch traders in Nagasaki. It was during
this period of isolation that Japan strengthened herself, setting the basis for the later development
of strong nationalism and rapid industrialization. It was also during this time that the other
cultures of Asia were broken down and ravaged by the forces of Western imperialism; thus Japan
used to her own benefit a time period which worked much to the detriment of all the other
countries in Asia.
But the West could neither tolerate nor understand isolation, and at last in 1853
Commodore Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay with a request from the American government for the
opening of relation and with some not very subtly veiled threats of force if the Japanese chose
not to cooperate.
The Japanese really had no choice as they knew how much force the West could apply,
but the opening of the doors was, nevertheless, one of the important causes of the downfall of the
Tokugawa Shogunate and the subsequent restoration of the Emperor. The Emperor had never
been deposed, but his powers had been shifted to the military; at this point the power and center
of the government were shifted back to the imperial court although not to the direct control of the
Emperor.
Once opened to Western influence, the Japanese became avid learners of modern
processes of all kinds. They learned about navies from the British, armies from the Germans, and
business methods from the Americans. The rapid modernization of Japan was a directed
movement, carefully planned and controlled from the top as had been the process of learning
from China centuries earlier, and thus it involved no $erious restructuring of social classes. There
were some moves toward the democratization of the political organization, but basically the
aristocrats remained firmly in power; in fact certain aristocratic families found a new source of
power in modernization in the formation of big businesses, which even today are among the most
important controlling influences in Japanese society.
At any rate, Japanese modernization proceeded quickly, especially in the military field,
and in 1895 Japan amazed China by defeating her in battle in Korea. In 1905 Japan amazed the
world by winning a brief war against Russia. Thirty-five years later, Japah felt sirong enough to
take on several of the Western powers together and thus embarked upon what is now called
World War II.
After her defeat in that war, Japan was left in a shambles due to severe American
bombing of Tokyo, atomic bombs dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, frightful economic
conditions brought about by war expenses, and spirits generally broken by the realization of their
own vulnerability. For many young Japanese, this tenible defeat marked the end of self-trust and
a complete reorientation toward Western knowledge and Western values. But then Japan rebuilt

3. herself, and in the space of twenty-five years or so became once again one of the important
powers in the world. With her phenomenal economic'growth, her citizens regained much of their
lost self confidence, and the Japanese of today are once again nationalistic, although in varying
degrees. Neither is the new Japanese self-respect entirely due to industrial progress: most of the
Japanese of today recognize the beauty and value of their traditional culture as well, and that
culture is by no means dead and buried. The traditional arts of the tea ceremony and of archery
are now practiced by very few, but a certain recognition of the past and a longing for it is felt be
a great many Japanese today. In fact the reconciliation of past attitudes with present ones remains
an important problem in Japan on both the social and the literary levels.
TFM SHINTO LEGENDS
The earliest writings from ancient Japan are the Records of Ancient Matters, or Kojiki, A
D.712. and the Chronicles of Japan, or Nihongi, A. D. 720.Both of these start with chapters on
the mythological Age of the Gods and thus date themselves back into the sixth or seventh
century B.C. But both have also been considerably influenced by Chinese thought, and most
historians assume that in compiling these collections early in the eight century A.D., the
Japanese made a conscious effort to supply themselves with the equivalent of the Chinese
classical histories. During certain stages of Japanese development, even as late as the Meiji
restoration of 1868, these Shinto legends have been accepted as histoiical fact, although in
postwar times they have slipped back into the status of myth. They are still interesting and rather
powerful as legends and they still illustrate some of the bases of Japanese nationalism. The
following selections are all from the Nihonghi, adapted from Aston's Nihongi and edited by Win.
Theodore de Bury in Source of Japanese Tradition.
BIRTH OF THE SUN GODDESS
lzanagi no Mikoto and lzanami no Mikoto consulted together, saying: "We have now
produced the Great-eight-island country with the mountains, rivers, herbs, and trees. Why should
we not produce someone who shall be lord of the universe?" They then together produced the
Sun Goddess, who was called O-hiru-me no muchi.
The resplendent luster of this child shone through all the six quarters. Thereforethe two
Deities rejoiced, saying: "We have had many children, but none of them have been equal to this
wondrous infant. She ought not to be kept long in this land, but we ought of our own accord to
send her at once to Heaven and entrust to her to affairs of Heaven."
At this time Heaven and Earth were still not far separated, and therefore they sent her up
to Heaven by the ladder of Heaven.
They next produced the Moon-god.
His radiance was next to that of the Sun in splendor. This god was to be the consort of the
Sun Goddess and to share in her government. They therefore sent him also to Heaven.
Next they produced the leech-child, which even at the age of three years could not stand
upright. They therefore placed it in the rock-camphor-wood boat of Heaven and pbandoried it to
the winds.
Their next child was Susa-no-o no Mikoto.
This god had a fierce temper and was given to cruel acts. Moreover he made a practice of
continually weeping and wailing. So he brought many of the people of the land to an untimely
end. Again he caused green mountains to become withered. Therefore the two gods, his parents,

4. addressed Susa-no-o no Mikoto, saying: "Thou art exceedingly wicked, and it is not meet that
thou shouldst reign over the world. Certainly thou rrrust depart far away to the Netherland." So
they at length expelled him.
THE SUN GODDESS AND SUSA-NO-O
After this Susa-no-o no Mikoto's behavior was exceedingly rude. In what way?
Amaterasu [the Heaven-Shining-Deity] had made august ricefields of Heavenly narrow ricefielis
and Heavenly long ricefields. Then Susa-no-o, when the seed was sown in spring, broke down
the divisions between the plots of rice and in autumn let loose the Heavenly piebald colts and
made them lie down in the midst of the ricefields. Again, when he saw that Amaterasu was about
to celebrate the feast of first-fruits, he secretly voided excrement in the New Palace. Moreover,
when he saw that Amaterasu was in her sacred weaving hall engaged in weaving garments of the
gods, he flayed a piebald colt of Heaven, and breaking a hole in tfie roof-tiles oittt" hall, flung it
in. Then Amaterasu started with alarm and wounded herself with the shuttle. Indignant of tiis,
she straightaway entered the rock-cave of Heaven, and having fastened the 1.o.f-do.., dweli
there in seclusion. Therefore constant darkness prevailed on all sides and the alternation of night
and day was unknown.
Then the mighty myriads of gods met on the bank of the Tranquil River of Heaven and
considered in what manner they should supplicate her. Accordingly Omoikane no Kami, with
profound device and far-reaching thoughts, at length gathered long-singing birds of the Eternal
Land and made them utter their prolonged cry to one another. Moreovei hi made Ta-jikara-o to
stand beside the Rock-door. Then Ame no Koyane no Mikoto, ancestor of the Nakatomi deity
Chieftains, and Fut-o-dama no Mikoto, ancestor of the Imibe Chieftains, dug up a five-hundrei
branched True Sakaki tree of the Heavenly Mt. Kagu. On its upper branchesihey hung an eight-
hand mirror. On its lower branches they hung blue soft offerings and white soflofferings. T'hen
they recited their liturgy together.
Moreover, Ama no Uzume no Mikoto, ancestress of the Sarume Chieftain, took in her
hand a spear wreathed with Eulalia grass, and standing before the door of the rock-cave of
Heaven, skillfully performed a mimic dance. She took, moreover, the true Sakaki tree of the
Heavenly Mount'Kagu and made of it a headdress, she took club-moss and made of it braces, she
kindled fires, she placed a tub bottom upward and garie forth divinely inspired utterance.
Now Amaterasu heard this and said: "Since I have shut myself up in the Rock-cave, there
ought surely to be continual night in the Central Land of fertile reed-plains. How then can Ama
no Uzume no Mikoto be so jolly?" So with her august hand, she opened for a narrow space the
Rock-door and peeped out. Then Ta-jikara-o no Kami forthwith took Amaterasu bu the hand and
led her out. Upon this the gods Nakatomi no Kami and Imibe no Kami at once drew a limit by
means of a bottom-tied rope (also called a left-hand rope) and begged her not to return again
Iinto the cave].
After this all the gods put the blame on Susa-no-o and imposed on him a fine of one
thousand tables and so at length chastised him. They also had his hair plucked out and made him
therewith expiate his guilt.
TF{E F{EAVENLY GRANDCHILD AND T}IE SEA-GOD'S DAUGHTER

5. The elder brother Ho-no-susori no Mikoto had by nature a sea gift
and the younger
brother Hiko-hoho-demi had by nature a mountain gift In the beginning"the
two brother{ the
elder and the younger, conversed together, saying: "Let us for a trial
e-xchange gifts.', They
eventually exchanged them, but neither of them gained aught by doing
so. The elder brother
repented his bargain and returned to the younger brother his bow
und urt*r, asking for his fish-
hook to be given back to him. But the younger brother had already lost
the elder brother,s fish-
hoolq and there was no means of finding it. He accordingly made a new
hook, which he offered
to his elder brother. But his elder brother refused to accEpt it and demanded
the old hook. The
younger brother, grieved at this, forthwith took his
and forged from
"rorr-*ord brother. But his it new fish-
hooks, which he heaped up in a winnowing tray andoffered to his
elder brother
was wroth and said. "These are not my old fish-hook; though they
are many, I will not take
them." And he continued repeatedly to demand it vehemently. fherefore
Hiko-hoho-demi,s grief
was exceedingly profound, and he went and made moan by
the shore of the sea. There he met
Shiho-tsutsu no Oji. The old man inquired of him, saying: "Why dost
thou grieve here?,, He
answered and told him the matter from first to last. The old man-said. "Grieie
no more. I will
arrange this matter for thee." So he made a basket without interstices,
and placing it in Hiko-
hoho-demi, sank it in the sea. Forthwith he found himself at a pleasant
strand, where he
abandoned the basket and, proceeding on his way, suddenly arrived
at the palace of the Sea-God.
palace was provided with baulements and turrets und hud stately
.This toivers. Before the gate
there was a well, and over the well there grew a many-branched cassia-tree
with wide-rpr"iding
boughs and leaves. Now Hiko-hoho-demi went upio the foot of
this tree and loitered about.
After some time a beautifulwoman appeared and, pushing open the door,
came forth. She at
length took a jewel-vessel and approached. She was about to draw water
when raising her eyes,'
she saw him and was alarmed. Returning within, she spoke to her father
and mother, saying:
"There is a rare stranger at the foot of-the tree before the gate."
The God of the sea thereupin
prepared an eight-fold cushion and led him When they had taken their seats, he inquirei of
in
him the object of his coming. Then Hiko-hoho-demi explained to him reply
all the
circumstances. The Sea-God accordingly assembled the fishes, both great
and small, and
required of them an answer. They all said: "We know not. Only the
Redloman has had a sore
mouth for some time past and has not come," She was there6re peremptorily
summoned to
appear, an on her mouth being examined, tlre lost hook was aciually found.
After this' Hiko-hoho-demi took to wife the Sea-God's daughter, Toyo-tama-hime,
and
dwelt in the sea palace-... When the heavenly Grandchild was about to sei
out on his return
journey, Toyo-tama-hime addressed him, saying. "Thy Handmaiden
is already pregnant, unO it.
time of her delivery is not far off. on a day *hen the winds and waves u.. ruging,
I will surely
come forth to the seashore, and t pray that thou wilt make for me a parturition
hour" and await
me there...."
After this Toyo-tama-hime fulfilled her promise and brought with her a younger sister.
Tama*yori-hime bravely confronted the winds and waves and caile to
the seashore. When the
time of her delivery was at hand, she besought Hiko-hoho-demi saying: "When thy
handmaiden
is. in travail, I pray thee do not look at her." However,
the Heavenly Grandchild could not.restrain
himself but went secretly and peeped in. Now Toyo-tama-hime just in cniraUirtfr
into a dragon. She was greatly ashamed and said: i.Hudrt thou nit disgraced me,
rr;J;;;g;;
I would have
made the sea and land communicate with each other and forever pre-vented
them from being
sundered. But now that thou hast disgraced me, wherewithal shait friendly
feelings be knii
together?" So she wrapped the infant in rushes and abandoned it on the
slashore. Then she

6. barred the sea-path and passed away. Accordingly the child was called Hiko-nagisa-take-u-gaya-
fuki-aezu no Mikoto.
A long time after, Hiko-hoho-demi no Mikoto died and was buried in the imperial mound
on the summit of Mount Takaya in Hyuga.
EARLY JAPANESE POETRY
TO COMFORT MY LITTLE SON AND DAUGHTER
Michizane, a high official, was forced into exile. AII of his twenty-three children were detained
or sent to different places except the two youngest, who were allowed to accompany their father
to Kyushu.
Your sisters must all stay at home,
Your brothers are sent away
Just we three together, my children,
Shall chat as we go along
Each day we have our meals before us,
At night we sleep all together.
We have lamps and tapers to peer in the dark
And warm clothes for the cold.
Last year you saw how the Chancellor's son
Fell out of favor in the capital.
Now people say he is a ragged gambler
And call him names on the street.
You have seen the barefooted wandering musician
The townspeople call the Justice's Miss -
Her father, too, was a great offrcial;
They were all in their day exceedingly rich.
Once their gold was like sgnd in the sea;
Now they hardly have enough to eat.
When you look, my children, at other people,
You can see how gracious Heaven has been.
THE SPIDER.
There is craft in this smallest insect,
With strands ofweb spinning out his thoughts,
In his tiny body finding rest,
And with the wind lightly turning.
Before the eaves he stakes out his broad earth;
For a moment on the fence top lives through his life,
When you know that all beings are even thus,
You will know what creation is made of.