1. Minerals are naturally occurring, solid substances with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure. They form through inorganic processes and are not living.
2. The key properties used to identify minerals include crystal structure, hardness, cleavage, luster, streak, and reaction to acid. Minerals are also classified based on their main chemical constituents such as oxides, sulfides, silicates.
3. Igneous rocks such as granite, basalt and rhyolite form from the cooling and solidification of magma either underground as plutonic rocks or at the surface as volcanic rocks. Their texture and mineralogy depend on the composition of the magma and rate of cooling.
National Geographic Traveler - Park City: Going For The High LifePeter Crosby
National Geographic Traveler - Jan 1999
Going For The High Life: Utah's Park City, a former silver-mining town, shoots for the gold as Olympics host and winter hot spot…
This PDF contains scanned images of my Associated Examining Board (AEB) Basic English certificate. I obtained this educational award in November 1987 at Pensby Secondary School For Boys (now known as Pensby High School For Boys).
National Geographic Traveler - Park City: Going For The High LifePeter Crosby
National Geographic Traveler - Jan 1999
Going For The High Life: Utah's Park City, a former silver-mining town, shoots for the gold as Olympics host and winter hot spot…
This PDF contains scanned images of my Associated Examining Board (AEB) Basic English certificate. I obtained this educational award in November 1987 at Pensby Secondary School For Boys (now known as Pensby High School For Boys).
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
FIDO Alliance Osaka Seminar: Passkeys and the Road Ahead.pdf
Nat Sci - Minerals
1. . :: .r...,
,,-r n r ! ! :, *
! i.l tI > ir fd{lut i' ': :
!ti-I1 r /!
l" i l-
I
I
I
i
ffq'NERALS
Minerals:
l"
1. naturallY occurrtng
2. homogenuous,solid :
3. cornPositicn not fixed)
a. chenric':'l (clefinite but.generally
b. PtrYsica
4, orderecl aiorni.c ?fl'?rrlerl€fltprrrcersses
s. .trtrrrt f :'rme'l oy ill(lrganic
sr"tbstances
Mi neral oi rls - natttri:liy occurri n g 4]1ryThgf
witrtout crYstalline structure
*Tire orderly p.arterns ihat aton:s of elements assume
in a rr''ineral is called iis
crystallin u- stru cture
br-rt different
* Polymorplrs r ntinerals lra"ing the same composition/elernents
crystalli;',e struc:t r]'es
I
examPles:
ir.-arcasite -;
-* - Pvt'tqano
-- -l
.
I
Calcite atrd -.-,ragonite .---__
-^^^nrla I
*Alias es:
1. Caiclte - islan'l sPa;
2. FYrite - 1os1'1i cl'rld
3. Quart;. - ice cnilstals
Georgius tgr:cola (Georg Bar'rer)
D",f.q Metallica- , ..,,,,' ,,, , ,i, ,, . ,
Optical Fic';:e*ies;
2- dotrble refrtl;tion
':---
rr a sroup oi' crvstai
rrerar oytlrald unngu*rg"3,; consists
fff:1":',oJ11J':1,. to the'"j"ll::::,^oj
t,,,,"r, Tii';i':*n'.f,-nuuu the same relation physical properttes
' an*
s':rintlettv ancl cltsPti' ,-th* same chemical
2. because ;:[l are ui ;.erlain bY Iike atoms in the same geom€
af'ang€'Tlent
ex. pr,smatic
cubic '
*Nicolas steno - pointed out that the angles between correspo.nding faces on
of a nrine:tai [quartz] are always the same
"rfttuft de I'Lsle
* Rome
of
*Law of consta*cy of Interfacial Angles - angles between equivalent faces
crystals of the .ru"l* substance, measured
at the same temperature are
constant.
2. crystal habit - e.iternal shaPe
ex. botrYoidar, iihrous, grar"uiar
3: color - i': ti:e brightr'.ess or Carl"ness of a mineral :r-,- -^-.-{-r'..
spe -trum
_. - resurl of ilie ieflection of light within the visible
a. idroch,om:tic - ex. rruscovite (white or c.olorless), azurite (azure blue),
' rnalachite (green): sulfur (yellow)
b'. allochr:matic - ex' quartz
I
4. streak' is the color qiven by a pulverized mineral
eX'a.hernatite:streak=reddish.brown/indianred
| : color = red to black
b lir'ronite : streak = Yq'llow
: color = bl''-,wn
right that is reflected frcm I re surface of a
5. luster - qual:':, 3nd intensity of
lnir,eral
- can be lrouPed into:
'r
a metailic - luster "rf untarnished rnetal; the usual characteristic' of
dark and opaque rninerals
ex. nylite, golcl
h. non-metallic - ir,utatl"rizes the colored nrir erals , ,
l :,
, b. i resit'rous - appearance of resin .
b.; vitrer-rus - glass
u.s ouiil"urt'i:
b.4 adamantiire - diamond
b.5 silkY - silklike
b.i pearly - iridescent pearl-like lusJer..,
'grenJv
u.z -rpp"ars to be covered wiil. thin layer of oil
!
i
I
I
I
I
I
x&
3. A*
6. lrarciness - abiliiy of a rninerill to-withstand abrasion or scratching
- in .licated in ternrs of the Mohs' Scale of Hardness
calcite q
fluorite 14
-r5 diamond 1 hardest
Practical scale:
CLr-coin
r;, specific gravity. - refers to the ratio of the weight of a volumeof material to
the weight of an eclual volume of waier
- spr:ing scale; hefting the mineral by hand
ex.:
| 2.65 feld 2.56-2.76
old 19.3
q. cleavage -,i:iers to the characteristic tendency.of mat,minerals tc spiii. c:'
sepa:'ate easily along certain planes
- govenred by interrial arrangement
_ weak,:lssl
a. .ype of brr cring c. boti a and b
b. greater alomic sPacing
rfect
very good at 9C degrees to each other' feldspar
fair at 90 dectrees I9,n9-.--.--i
at 56.dsgleeg !r 124 degree.- amohibole
e
Perleei-oei-ell A Oegrees; rhomboh
perfect _ diamond
nerft':ct sphalarite
'r
v
'F
4. formed by the ''rreaking in the:
g. fracture - refers to the nature.of ir''"ofsurr"ce
cleavage
oir""i'"n other than those the
'
-i-
quartz)
a' cort:hcidal (ex'
b ri;'i;;;i'itint"'Y
' c' irregu'ar
hai;'liY
d'
- ^r ^r'"^{rrral rnta: ruintiing or-
l0.parting-breakingalongp|anesofstructuralweakness;resultoftt
pressure
nr
ll.tenacity-resistarcethatamiiteralofferstobreaking'crushing'bendirig'
tei ring
eas.ilY
a. brittle - breaks or powders ,
n' tnuiiuuble - hammered into thin sheets
with a knife
c. sectile - can be cut'into thin shavings
' cl' 'Cttctile - drawn into wire shape
;;ilL - n*nos but does not return to origina'
". elastic
f.
12. fluorescence' artdt.
phosphorescenee
4'I magnetism
14. reaction to HCI
', 5. taste
16. srnell
1'l . striations
5. . CI.ASSIFICATION OF MINERALIE
.I-CCORDING TO CHEMICAL GROUPS
native elements old, sulfur, diamond
oxides maqnetite, hematite
sulfides rite, qalena
sulfates
carbonates calcite. dolomite
hclsphates apatite
silicates uartz, feld l-
EIGHT MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENTS
IN THE EARTH'S CRUST
3.63
27.72 2.83
B.13 2.59
5X0
silica Tetrahedron . basic burlding block of the earth's crust
*polyrnerization
Silicates - most abunCant mineral group r
Feldspars - rnost abundant mineral
(bl Silicon.Oxygen Tctraledron cxpandcd
(rl Teuahcdron
(d) Top view
7. 4.1 lGNDOus R(Juri"u '
,l
'Definitions: t ut mrnerals'
^r
niaterials whiclr maybe conposeo
. -*.. cfrnred, r:onsolidated l
irlocirs - r1:ltursuv ::il;;i.;;r, glass or a cornbination of these'
rocx
oiganic ttiatter, of
and solidification
"ig7lf$" fire) - fgrrned by direct crystaUiztrtion
Iglteorts roclcs:fLatin
nlilgttt'
Magntu
- "l{llr,acled nrixttrrd'
E l,s gi il ile;tuilssleri$ii
- rnol:ih
t*.,?f, sases
-'1,:, ,lTilo",',u*d r:l:?:51
tlissslvecl
ii
' the upPer rnantle
cnist: or in rhe upper
rnar due to
Jtltrtr partial *ati'ie 't'qti'wer
' forr:retl n' o "*uti
';;i;;,';'ic
- iieat,anrl/ot decreasT:.[:Tlfapped the earth's cnrst
lruithrn
on tho earth's surla(
-;.;,i;;'l.placecl
-;;,;;n.,,. cltnmbers K,'
*,*;r{:L::::f;j::,t',# l,"f,f'Na'
- S(Oi - PnllclPat -r ^:
uirlo*tv and explosive characteristics
- <rjssalvecr gases ;;;ii;:;riiu,*",r
6i]0'- 1200'C
- rilnfie t"nt1t"*tit"J'
',f SOz
- ,]"rir, L'I20-,:aPor, COr,
- Xlrvn
Lli.'ir.r-,j:,Pgg
" 50% Si0z
n. tltsnltic Inagmfl . 't:900-12C0"C
highlY fluid
eolr6Y, sloa
l"t. Grnnitic nraEitna
' T: lower than B00oC
- highlY viscous
l.Ld.tiri,--nn{erysldliag'lstr . of change"
'-o;j-"'tiy series -c^L^n
i:'.i.aciion $eries =
'
J- ,1".',-tts Reactiorr Series .,i. ,
., is graduallY
" r in whish the'earlier fornred inrler$s rnrgma'fbr
';;'i i'
i;' :'il:r:'; il; #'oi;"' r'm trre
"''t
:; n ll; t'the mineral
-*:i'iil1: :, : Tf
, tt,rti.*. in
8. ex.: plagioclase (Ca-rich torl(rich)
f.)iscontinuous Reaction Series : reactiorr in which an early crystallized mineral reacts
to form
with the remaining licluid which constantly. changes its conrposition during cooling
ancther mineral
ex.. 'i
i,,,, Enstatite + +
Forsterite Melt
2 Mg SiOr MgzSiOa SiOz
Magmatic ;lifferentiation : a general piocess in which the original magma with its full
.ung. of cornponent elements is separated into rocks of different mineral composition
a. fractionation
b, filter o:essing
. c. assimilation of the wall rock
d. magnra-mixing
Morlqresl-af.tnsglqa
a. external.forces - sqrteezing of rnagma chamber and causs filter pressing
b. internal forees - gur **punsion; stoping (magma move along fractures until they engulf
the ho$ rock)
tgnerrus rocks ,
- 80% of the mass of the earth's crust
- Genetically classified into
rr''| a. plutonio: intrusivb
li, volcanie = extrusive I
c. liypabyssal
- Mineralo$ically:
a, felsic - large proportions of K-feldspar and Na-plagiocl456 + quartz
b. mafic - Ca-plagioclase, large hmounts of{endrnagnesian mlrerals but little
quartz or K-feldspar
c. ultramafic - composed entirely offerromagnesiatt rninerals with minor amounts
of feldsPars
- Major textures
Textirre Dcscription Inte'rpretation
Phaneritic grains visible to the relatively slow cooling
naked eve
Aphanitic grains not visible to relatively fast cooling
the naked eye _ _
Forphyritic some grans coarse, two cooling rates
others line
(phenocryst,
sioundmass/matrix)
9. no minerals fonled
r id s"tft; co4llg witElgSie eg
9X
Most Abundant lgneous Rocks
#-
Intrusive Extrusive
feiric r" ck[ K.ftiltdMptfiioclase, qtr arte,
less
Granite Rhyolite
amountp of biotite or ampbibqle-.
-.
.
Diorite
'Andesite
ffie(30-50% anorthite),
a,rnphibole,, (quartz may be present in
gqoi*.
"t'Gali,bro- ' Basalt
amounts of olivine
s.trapes brrfiirtiilve rock bcdies
of its size or shape
" Flutoir ='any llass of intntsive rrrck regardless
a. batholiths
b. :tcsks
c, dikes
d. sills
I
e. lacolith
f. tupolith
(mining): gold district
imflb rlancb:' r.retaliic and non-metallic minerals
'
L.
' : -"
:- i' (' '
5.1 Yolungoes ''
!-
ro!r:n:io : a vdni which connects a reservciir of maguu in the deptlis of tlie earlh's crust
with the surface of the earth
:
ejc"ts lava, fragmentaVpyrociastic rocks and
gases
:
cons (volcanic edifice)
A. Lava
nffiu that h1S reached the surface of the earth
different compositions ancl temperatures iesulted
into lavas with a rango of physical
-
properry (i.e., r'iscosity) and fcafules.
a.. paloeho* riua -:t:glly fluid, T = 1000"c;
thin; smooth, biilciwy, ropy suilace
b. aa l.vr - fi'-il; iini.'guq $low moving; seu*rh neters thick;rough'
':' "ibtlu$;
jugg*d, sPinose '
c. pittorv-,ta.iu1"-Iffii;pted under water or ice; (toothpaste-like)
10. I .f
a ,l ll. F!'rqginstic materials
blown-out from a volcanic vent under pressure or
-:il:,:m#*'ffffiT$rrue**,smagma
the
raoidlv expanding gases present in
plsstic state
- rr*tpoi.d eitfiei+n in solid or
of the fragments
- classification in telTns of sizes and shapes -
older lavas
r
a, blocks - > 64 mm; pieces of crustal layers or
the congealing of blebs tllj:d ..'j:a
b. bombs - > i4mm; spindle/spherical masses from
Iava
b"l bowdung
' "i b'z breadcrust
b'3 armored
,0 c. lapilli -2-64 mrn;
saccretionary lapilli
4 ash-<2mm
glass)
+*r- Pu,nice, scori&, obsidian (volcanic
T:
.;, of pyroclastic rocks and lava
..:,ts, domppsite/strntevolcnnoes: altemntingla-yers
Mont Pelpt'Krakatau
ex.. Mt. ttu.ii, V.r,,nius, Stromboli' Etnq Mayon'
: a higtrly hh?{ gas 'charged with incandescent
i' nuee srdente (glowine cloud)
,rt porti"ie, ,oitrut i, i"g"*ii*r u *ouile ernulsio--n
ydtidense enough to maintain
lntact with surface '
r.ldera - co.llapsed volcano (ex' Taaf,Laguna Bay)
.;r .:ir
comPo$ed of solidified lava flows;
b. Shield ".olcailoes - broad, gently sloping.v-;rcantjes
rarelY stePPer than,f:dtigrees '
ex. Mauna Loa '
': , a
'il. Cindur cones - volcano that is constructed
of loose fragmentilpyroclastics;slopes
about 30-33 degrees
ex. Parictrtin
BELT
- PACTF'IC RING.OF FIRE/CIRCIJM-PACTTTC
Type of Volcanic Eruptions: -rr --^,.-|.^.rri.onh,erl gases
.,cq.eq
*. influencealfnir"ority of the magma aitd a{nourlf oi dissolved
- .iolencs" ,*pii* i, ,rtuit io ,rr" o*gree of fragmentation and the
distance
"'r.n
quiet liberation of gases
a. Fflaw*iian - ubundant outpouring of lava flows; lava fountains;
11. and scoria
b. Stnoxnholinn - milil, explosive eruption of pasty, incandescent bombs
ql, accompanied by a white vapor cloud; discrete explosions
c. vutrcaninn - btsw-out of solidified cnrsts (over the crater); acbompanied by a great
- - lava'flows may
;;;iifl.wei shaped eruption cloud containing an abundanco of ash;
issue
d. Flininn - eruption of extrerne violence; gas-blast eruption; eruption cloud resembles an
spreading out); huge'
Italian stone pinetree (shooting upward of the column then
sustained eruPtion column
Felean - extreme explosiveness; nuee ardente
Phneatic'
g F.trreatomagmntic l
h. Uliru-Ptiniatr - excessive emission of ash resulting to negative landforms
lLE
n*Vqlpgnlg-Hazards (
c. lava flows e. caldera collapse
a. ieplua fall
d. lahars f. tsunami
b. pyroclastic fhll
lrnportnnt: geothermal energY (ex. Makban, Bacman, Tiwi)
s[rMM3'nY
lava fottntains
12. :,t,il,i .. j,::,
r. i.:r:
.il..l_,'1
ffi
ffi i+:ir
:ri,'i
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b9&
o'ir 5
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13. ,i iii
wil,AT'r{rcntruc nivn ER,osnoN
iVE,:X'I.!!Eit,lNi- is the physical disintegtation arfci r,hernical decontposition by ivhich
rocks iire changed upon exposure to "agents" at or near the earth's surface, with little or
no lranspo;t of loosened or altercd Inateriai
*- agents - hydrosllhere, a-tmosphere, biospher-e
.4. l4cch*nical Weathering - is the breakdown. of rccks into smaller fiagnents by
vat'ious ph1151"'1 stresses
- ::tictly a lthysicul pl'oces:; willxnt a change in chemical
c1tilP)r'iliott
fr4 erhilnicaN Weath ering Frocesscs
a. ice wedging/ttost wedging
b. salt crystal gror,vth
L:. slrceting/unloading - releasc of confining p:ressure
exfoliation - fonnation of cprved sheets of rock by release of pressure
d. anirnals and plants
e. tlrermal expansion and contraction - seasonal/daiiy temperature changes
tr]. Chenrical Wcattering'- is the process"by rvhich chenrical reactions transform rocks
and nrinerals into ne;, shemicat cornbinations that are stable under conditions prevaillng at
or near the earth"s sur{-ace
lioie: more ef-fectittc itt x'armer clintcle:i - lrcat increase,s tlw xtte of ma:;t
reucf irnts
Chcnricnl Wcatherinq Proccsses
a. Flydrolysis - H' or Otf of the water anAffinUe ions of the rninerals
Ex. I(-ibldspar
2l(Alsi?o8 + 2tt2co3 -F 9FI20
Ortlroclase Carbonic Acid Water
Al2iii205(ot-t),r -l- 4l-I4sio4 J- ?tc + 2{-ICo3'
Kaolinite Silicic Acid Potassium Ion Bicarbondte l.on
{,
:--*ffi
14. . ,1;'
l). ulSSOllltl0n - Fr2U -- --Llnlversat solvent
Ex.
b.l NaCl T HzO Na -F CI 1- FLO
b.2 FITO COz
-,----+ HzCOr
CaCOr T FizCOr ------+ Caun F 2HCO:-
c. Oxidation * is the cornbiration of oxygen ioris ivith cations
Ex.
2FeSz + 7O:r + zHzO
F 2Fe'-' + 4SOt' + 4F-t+
4Fe'* -t- oz {- 4# -_|4FErr'r + 2H?O
gl&qlar dalrygolbstlqg or "onion-skin weathering" -- produces spheroidal boulders of
relat ively untveathertd material
X{.esults/f roducts:
a. regolirlr - fragincntal and uncor.rsoiidated rocl< material that has coarse grains
rvith angular edges and a composition sinrilar to the unweathered rock
" b. very large increase in the surface area of the v/eathered rnatedal
, f,,. soluble rnaterials
Xlilr:tons afT'ccting the nntes o{' weathering:
I. susceplibility ot'the consl-ituertt roirrurals to rveatltering
- Goldich Stability Series
-- nrinerals forrned at liigher temperatures and pressures tend to be less stable in
uveathering environment than those formed at lower temperatures
2. climale or intensity of the weathering processes
-- total amount of precipitation
- intensity ol'rain
-- sr:asonal variations
-- infiltration -r
-- run-ofl'and rate of evaporation
-- teulperature
''r'wnnn,
hunrirlclimate Vs. coid clirnaLe
-J. amount ol'srrrface exposecl to the atmosphefe
f,i?0$'/Ory - forcehrl physical removal of material frorn ihe parent rock, alwa.gs
acconrparried by transportat.ion and eventually end in deposition
a. running vrater d. 'ivind f- mass wasting:' :
b. grouncl water €.'waves' ald currents g. oigarric activi'
c. glaciers
15. '"
n
Dcpositio n itrtti [ix.hit'icatiorl :
I
I
l--
Lithifliq:ation - is the term for p group of processes tlrat conrreft loose sediments into
sedirlen.rarr/ rocks
u. C1:me6talion - the process by which sediments are convefted ilt<i roclr by the
cliemical precipiiation of rnineral material / cqment among the grains of the
sediment I
+
silic.r, carbonates and irolt oxides
t{ is tlie loss in over-allvolunie and pore space as sedinrent
t-, . Ccrnpactittn =
particles are packed closer together by the weiglt of, overlying rnaterial
Cry:;tallization - refers to crystal developmelit and growth by precipitation
fi'om solution; no cement; grains are held together by inierloclcing crystals
Ser{inrept:ltion - tlre process of fornring sedinqnt in layers, including ttre separation oi
rocli partioles fit'lnr the palerrt Inaterial, transportation of these pa.rticles to the site o.l
deposirir:n, actual cleposition/setiiing, litlrification and consolidaticn into rock,
16. '.
SEDIMEhITARY ROCKS
SedimentarY Rocks:
- Latin woi-d, sedimentum = "settling"
- formed from consolidation of
materials from pre-existing rocks, from
precipitation and from secretion of organisms'
Sediments - finely divided matter consisting of mineral grains and
organic
processes,.transported by
matter derived from pre-existing rocks and from life
and deposited from alr, water or ice'
- origin:
(1) weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks
izi cnemical prebipitation from solution
(3) secretion of organisms
Ocean = ultimate destination
Partlcie size classification for sediments
[dden-Wentworth Common
Size Glass . Sedimenf Narne
Particle Name
Gravel
or
Rubble
1116-2
1/256-1/16
Two Maior Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
.
and particles
1. clastic [Greek k/asfos, "broken"] = discrete fragments
crystal pattern' '
2. non-clastic texture = minerals forming an interlocking
.
17. Iypes of Sedlrrient'ary Kocr(s
a. Detrital sedimentary rocks'.particle size is the primary basis
UOOenlWentworth Common Detrital Rock
Size Class Sediment
(Particle Namq)- Name
Boulder Gravel Conglomerate
UI
Cobble
Rubble Breccia
Pebble
Granule
Sand Sand Sandstone
sitt Mud siltstone Shale or mUdstone
Clay clavstone
precipitation of minerals
b. chemical sedimentary rocks: formed by direct
from solution.
*Precipitation occurs in two.ways:
(1)lnorganicprocessessuchasevaporationandchemica|
actirTity can produce chemical sediments'
-
iximprei: dripstone and halite (salt)
(2) Organic processes of water-dwelling organisms form
biochemical sediments
Texture Composltton Rock Name
Group
Clastic or non- calclte, u?uu3 Limestone
clastic
Non-clastic Dolomite, Dolomite (Dolostone)
lnorganic CaMq(COs)z
Non-clastic MicrocrYstalline Chert
quartz, SiOz
Halite, Rock salt
Non-clastic
NaCl
Gypoum, RocK gYPsum
Non-clastic
CaSOo'2HzO
Clastic or non- Calciie, CaCOg Limestone
Organic clastic
Non-clastic MicrocrYstalline Chert
ouartz, SiOz
Torc6sttc Altered Plant Coal
remains
18. -..
SedimentarY $tnuctu res
environment'
*provide additional information with regard to the depositional
':rmed as bedding or stratificationl
1, l-aYering [also t(
:l
layer is 1 cm or more
1.1 strataor bed: thickness of tftu
l.2taminafion:thicknessofthelayerislessthanlcm
(e.g., change in
*may result from differences,Qetween |ayers in texture
color or cementation'
grain sizei'ti*iui tomposition'
-beddingptanes.=flatsurfaces.alongwhichrockstendtoseparate
and the beginning of
e end of one episode of sedimentation
another
(b)pauseindepositioncanleadtothecreationofbeddingplanes
2'Ripp|emarks.=smatlridgesofsandformedbymovingwindorwater
2,lCurrentripp|emardE:lfairorwaterismovingessentiallyinone
direction
2.2oscillatoryripplemarks:Resu|tfromtheback-and-forth
movementofsurface*.u"'inshal|owwaterenvironments
3'Cross.beddingisanarrangementofsmallbedsatanangletothemain
sedimentarY laYering
by a Progressive
4. Graded bedding is a tYPe of bedding characterized
through the bed'
decrease in grain size upwaid
5'Mudcracksarepolygonul",.u.k,thatformwhenmudshrinksasiidries'
19. fiNETAMOffiFffiC RCCKS
Metarnorphic rocks = rocks resutting from changes in temperature and
pressLtr'e ancl frotr changes in the chemistry of tlreir poi'e fluids.
= can be formed from igneous, sedimentary, or
previor-rsly nretanrorphosed rockb.
= solid-state .reaction
= consist of a fabric of irrterlocl<ing crystal grains,
usually with preferred grain orientation.
*Changes new minerals, textures and structures
-,,.t.*
-')
occur in the solid rock; witltout melting of rock
I. Principal agents of metamonphisrn
a. lentperature
- rarely below 200oC, upper limit is ihe melting'temperature of
tlte tock
b. Pressurc
i
l
b.1 confiping/static = pressLr-e applied equrally on all surface of tlre
BT5r"r, ecl/dynamic - pressLrre applied unequally on the surface
of a body
b.2.1 compressive - flattens objects perpendicular to applied
pfessLl[e
b.2.2 shearing flattens objects parallel to tlre applied
pressLlre
*Fcrliation parallel arrangement of textural or structrrral features
-
in apy type of rock; planar structure that results from flattening of
tlre constituent grains of a metamorphic rock'
c. Chentically active/migrating f/uids
- loss and gain of ions and atoms
- snrall arnir-rnt of pore fluid provides an inrportant medir-rrn of
transPotl
'Mletasornatisln
20. introduction of ions fronr an external source
generally connected with magmatic intrusions
I'r
T-- new material (front magma) + pore fluid = new mineral
ilil l,/ stable in the new chemical environment
l[. Types of metamorphlstm
a. Contact/thenmal metarnorphisrn = metamorphism resulting from
the intrusion of lrot magma into cooler rocks.
*dorninant factor: temperatu re
fvlelarrorphitr
Qracle.
Ll. Regional metamorphism = metamorphism caused by relatively
high ternperature and both directed and confining pressure
= *affects broad regions of the Earth's
crrrst, usually in areas of tectonic activity. '
= foliation
*heat: great depths, earth movements, batholiths
"pressure: burial, tectonism
.
, | .t t,. -,:.
c. l-lyclrothenmal nnetamorphlsm =
metamorphism cauSed by
migratingftLridsandbyionsdissolvedinthehotfluids.
lll. Textures of dretamorphic rocks .,,. .' .,
a. slaty = nearly perfect, planar, parallel fotiation of very fine glainedl
platy (flat) minerals (i.e , rnicas); low-grade tnetamorphism ,,
l,l.t
.li,..1,.,.....:,,.
,
21. b. Regional meta*orphi"* = metimorphiir .uru-d bg relatiu.lg high
ternperatrr. both directed unJ .ot fining Pressure
"nd
= u{Qd..ts brood regions of th. Earth's
crLrst, urrullg itr areas of tectonie activity
= foliution
*'m e n'fs1 ba'lh' h'lh s
.
::::;:::1i : f i:i::': J
c.. Hgdroth**uf meLamorphism = metarhotphitm .uut.d by nigrating
fl,ri,Js bg ions dissoln.d in the hot fluids"
.und
111. fct:turo of mctamorphic rocks
a. slatg = nearlg pe#ect, planat-, purull.lfoliution of v.tg fine-grained
plu'y (flat) minerals (i.e., micas); low-grade metamotphi"t
phglliti. = s parallel (but wavg or wrinLled) foliatio n o[ [in"-g,ained
(ol.uu;onulig ,n.diur -g,uii.d) platg minerals (i..., misas and
chlorires), .ih,biting a silkg or me13llic lu*er; relativelg lo*-grad"
metamorphittt'
(.. ,.l",,rtose = purull"l to foliation of m.dium- to coarse-
"ub-purallel
qrained plutg ninerals (micas and nhlorite); intermediate-.to h'gh-
e."d* rnetamorphitt
gnei-ssrc = p^r"ll"l to uub-purull-l folirtio. of t.dium to coarse-
,:-.,ri,r"d platrl minerals in' alternating l.g"ru_ of difFerent
cc,mposition; jirter*-ditt"- tohigh-grade metatotphiut '
g rnoblustic = -rniform g;ain size o{ equant or- l.andomlg oriented
s:rains
22. t l ( | l. | |'-' r,l l' I
t horntelsrc = tine-gained rocks with grains tendlngto be lntergrown
-'-'1--L-
irr rarrdorn orientation
M. C.lassi$ication
A. tlnioliatud with qranular texture
:
l
b. rcliiated
Namc Texture Parcnt Rock
ate Slaty Tufl-, shale
P Slatg (silkg sheen); Tuff, shale
phylliti.
,5chistose basalt, gabbro, tuf{-, andesite,
shal., rhgolit.
Gnciss Gneissose
-
Granite, rhale, diorite, ihgolite
oCataclastic roclcs= r.o.ks that htu. b."n granulated by .tuthing-
+ Mqlonite= uataclastic roclcs with floy textures-
23. *l
DIASTRC}PHISTJI / ROCK DEFORMATION
r.'olume
Deformation = a general term that refers to all, changes in
ancllor shaPe of a rock bociY
= tfr" strain yielding of a solid to applieci stress ,
*Stress = the amount of force acting on. a rock unit to change its
shape and/or volttme
a. confining Pressure - equal
b. differential or dii'ecied
. b.1 compressional - shorten a rock body
b.2 tensional - elongate or purll apart the rock
bodY
b.3 shear - sliPPage
*strain = is tlire.change in shape andior volume of a rock unit
caused bY stress
Iypes of deformation (strain):
a elastic deformation = object returns to iis original size and
shaPe when stress is removed
b. plastic.deformation =.a permanent change in the original
Lr,up* o.f a solid that occurs without fracture '
c. ruPture
, , '.'
i
Rocks that defcrm plastically by foldin$ and flowing
are said to be
;;;;i;".' On'tf.'* otr'*r nanditoikt tested undqr surface conditlohs
],r""..t"i* -[Ji."irv, uri olce they exceed their elastic limit,
*"rt:b*hau* like a'brittle sblid and fractr:re- This type oi
l"t"i*"ti;; i. "orr*o brittie failure'
24. Fqs+src '*f{e,o*rv,g -{Sa'bdhaviot of roo{rsl
a. inherent ProPerties mineralogy, gtain size, porosity etc'
--nlinelalswithstronginternalmclecularbonds;=brittle
-- weaker bonds = ductile
-- qLrartzite, granite, gneiss = brittle
ductile
-- rock satt, [ypsum'-Marble and shale =
L:. time
-- quicKtY = fracture
confining Rressure')
high = plastic
d temperature /
,i,
e. solution - loulers rock strength
MAPPING GEOLCIGlc sTRUqliuRES
Outcrops - sites where bedrock are exposed
geological feature
Attitude - refers to the 3D orientation of some
ex. bed, fracture
intersection of an
strike - direction of the line formed by thefeature
planar
imaginary horizontal plane and any
o
- trend ,
Dip.istheangleofinclinationofthesurfaceoftheplanar
plane'
feature **ur,-,r6d from the horizontal
25. '4tt
FOLDS
Folc.ls - sinrply a bend or waverike undulations in bedding, foliation,
ciea,;ace rir other planar featlrres
Parts of a fold:
, a. litnbs ar ilanks - twcr sides of a fold
b. hinge - line of maximum curvature in a folded bed
c. axr's - line paratlel to the hinge; line moving parallel to itself
that generates the fold tt..,,
d. axial plane - imaginary surface that divides a folci as
symmetrically as possible
e. plunge- angle between the fold axis and the hor-izontal
Types of folds:
i.l. anticline = "arch"; convex upward
b. syncline. = arches downwarcl
d. synrmetrical = limbs clivergle atthe same angle
e. a$ymrnetrical
- overturned = one limb is iilted beyond the ver-tical
recumbent = axial plane is horizontal
f. plunginE = iolcl with Cipping axis
g. monoclines = broaci flexures; one limb
h. domes and basiri
26. FRAC'TU RES
A" Joints = are fractures arong which no appreciabre
displacement has occurred
= may harre almost any orientaticn _ verticar,
h o ri zo n ta',:::t
;"#:,Xifl '1.,=
Causes:
a. columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and develop
shrinkage fractures
ex. Devil's Causeway in lreland
Devil's Tower in Wyoming
L-r. sheeting
c. rocks in outermost crust are cieforrneci
n" ,Joints
may be significant from an economic standpoint
*" ,Joints also present a risk to the construction of.engineering
projects
B. Fadlts = are fractures in the Earth's crust along which slippage
or displacement has occurred.
Fault terminology:
1. hanging wall = the rock above an inclined fault
2. footwall = the rock beneath an inclined fauli
27. Types of faults:
a. Dip slip fauits
a.'inormar/gravity faurts = extension; the hanging
'-"''7"'r wail rrq
moved down relative to ihe footwall 'uq'r has
6 graben (German word, "grave,;1 = wedge_shaped
rock dropped downward
block
of
' ll,H:;::"tnt of rock that have moved upward relative
to
a.z reverse faurt = compr"rrion; hanging wail has
', relaiive to the moved up
footwall; high_angled
i
I a.3 thrust fault = gompression; wall has moved up
, relative to ihe footwail,; row-angred _hanging
1so" oi +6"i'-',
b- strike-slip faurts = raterar faurts; high-angre
faurts in which the
displacement is ho.rizontal, parallel to the stit<e
of the fault plane,
with little or no vertical movement.
b.1 right lateral stike-slip faulUdextral
b.2 left lateral strike-slip faulUsinisiral
c. Oblique slip faults
28. EARTHQUAKES AND REL
cf the earth
Earthquake 'sudden motion or trernbling release of energy
- vibration in the earfh "ur.u-d by ihe rapicl
*Most often are caused by slippage along faulis
Elastic Rebound TheorY:
oFl.f:. Reid, Johns Hopskins University
slour deformation of the crust (creep)
until strength of rock is
- over'
exceeded. Then, ruptttre cccurs' Start
- 1906 San Francisco Earthquake adhquake,
a. in the 50 y"u" before the 1906 san francisco e
surveys takln in the area recorcled
an offset by creep over 3
6 m, this movement
, il:l"Ji,*nt during the 1906 eafthquake was
to 50 years
took plaiu in +O ieconds as opposed
an earthquake originate
Focus - the poirrt at which vibrations of
Epicenter-pointonsurfac*ot"",-tr.'irnmediatelyabo'vefocus
Rupturesurface-areaonafaultplanethatexperiencesmovement
cluring an earlhquake event
any atqcri, tra vels through rock, produced
$eismic Waves .- ^^,r elastic waves that
by an earthquake or exPlosion
Whenanearthquakeoccuts,seismicWavesaregivenoff.Thisis
Wives are created
simiiar to throwinga stone tntol quiet body of water'
which move out fiom the point of impact
Energy is being propagated along
these paths; and as it moves
some of the energy is lost'
its energY'
The farther the wave travels the lower
29. Seismograph - iirstrurnent that records seisrnic wav.es
Seismogram - record made by the seisnrograph
Types of seismic waves:
. 'i- Body waves -
radiate outward from the focus in concentric spheres
and travel through the Earth's intericr
a. P-waves - Primary waves, Longitudinal waves, Compression
WAVCS
- involves alternating compression and expansion of the
material through which it passes
- similar to sound waves, like ihe nrotion of a spring or slinky, a
push-pull rnotion
- movement of rock particles is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation
- fastest waves, travel 5 to 15 km/s
- may pass through any kind of solids, liquids, or ga.ses
b. S-waves - Secondary waves, Shear waves, Transverse waves
- inVolves oscillation of rock particles perpendicular to the
direction
of propagation
- like sending a "wave' through a rope
- slower than p-waves, 4-7 km/s
- may pass through solids onlY
2. $urface waves - Long waves, L-waves
- radiate outward from the epicenter and travel along the outer part
of the earth; generally slower than body waves
- greater amplitude and longer period
- cause the greatest destruction
a. Rayleigh vJaves - rock particles move in a vertical rolling
(orbital) motion, something'like ocean waves
b. Love waves - rock particles move side to side in a horizontal
plane
- very destructive and travel faster than Rayleigh waves
Pvelocit.v' } Syeto city > Lvelocity
30. Locatine an earthqrrake
- in orCer to locate an earthquake, at least three seismograph stations
are needed
- if only one station: distance to epicenter, along a radius from station
- if two stations: two possible epicenter .
- three stations: unique point
Measurement of Earthquake Strenqth
a. lntensity - an indication of the destructive effects of an eartlrquake at
a particular place
- affected by: distance to tire epicenter, total amount of energy
released and nature of surface materials
- Mercalli scale (lflodified Mercalli Intensity Index)
o qualitative and subjective
o measure of damage and 'felt' intensity
o determined by site'examination and interviews
b. Magnitude -
total arnount of energy released during an earthquake
- based on direct measLlrements of the size (amplitude) of seismic
WAVES
- total ener$y reieased - calculated fi'om the amplitr-rde of the waves
and the distance from the epicenter
- Richter scale
o quantitative
o open ended, <1 to infinity
o logarithmic (a magnitude 2 is 10 times more powerful than a
magnitude 1)
Effgcts of earthquakes
1^ ground shaking and rupture
2. landslides
3. iiquefaction
4. tsunamis (seismic sea waves)
o originate when water is verticaily clisplaced during:
earthquakes
' uncjersea landslides (turbidite fiows)
undersea,rolcanic eruptions (e, g Krakatoa, 1683)
31. u6'F{ r rcf Eo. rr, r- ,,'*rF I - lr r*a- t@ds. 4te4+_gAgrfih€4r&rmCoC,ffin tfic gm&rs sititace,
charrging their positicns relaiive to one another
* ocean floor remains stationary as ihe contirrents ptowe(
thror_rgh it
-- t'lot nev/:
a. Buffon - sirnilarity in fossils
b. Snider-Pelligrini - similarity in coasilines
*"l'lorth Arnerica
and Europe
--'Alfred Wegener - Father of Continental Dr-ift
continents had been united into a vast superccntinent called
Pangaea (Pangea)
a. Laurasia (northern) _ North America, Eurasia
;
b. Gondwana (southern) - lndia and the rest of the continents
i
ii - driving mechanism: rotational and tidal forces
i -- Wegener's lines of evidence:'
l
a. ligsaw puzzle fit of the continents
i
,i b. distribution of fossil plants and animals
examotes:
i b ] G/cs opteris sp. and Gangamopfe4rs sp.
i b.2 Lystrosaurus.sp. - found in Antartica, Inclia anc.l
,
I South America; land dweller
(Why not North Arnerica? Distribution of fauna is
i
)u,n
"r:::5X,.,,:uJ;:':'3 : Arr e ri ca and s o u tir Arrica,
i:. aquatic reptile
li c. continuity of geotogic structures
- lndia, Africa, South America, Australia and Antartica .
'. tillites
'
j fossils
i
)l
, - identical patterns oi'scratches and grooves fornred in the
,. rocks
I d. nt*terhs trf pateoclfn"atgs ard qlc"tehby,, rn +he Soratho-rn l-te.rrrsphere
,'1 ' - pr*,.r*I. ; r.,[.-*o, -+"r*otrt"; rn
ftr*artica ,;;;;;;-'"
, once near tfie aqua*or
' .i.iFters v:. *i:rers - (tqao) cpiii-.aa< due rnainry io -rhe onc,r.0.,:t,ur,.,
32. ltl
rrf
t'
ocearl:
l
o in oPen ^^^ -,,^- ,
a tlr?V travei uP to 700-800 km/hr
" wavelength >100-200 knt
r wave height <1 m
o approacnlng a coastline
)hing d :"i:-'l:'^*^^^-
r wavelengih decreases (up to
. h;;;iintruu*", to compensate for low velocity
:
30m) <
'
' velocitY is reduced to 60 km/hr
of lakes' bays' rivers etc')
5. seiches (oscillating waves on surface
6. fire
7. t"gionalbhanges in iand elevaiion
.Seismichazardmaps'hqyearthquaKeriskinaparticulararea.
-indicateprobabilityofanevent,andprobabi|ityofacertain
amount of ground shaking
- Short term Prediction
}some=u""",'byJapaneseandChinesebyuslng|u|esl
other data
F factors considered useful:
3
'/ o"toimation of ground surface
:";il;i**i tune connecst two .water-fill:: "::tuiners
D gravimeters - measures changes in -.-graviiational
or falling land; of
strength brought ab,out ,nV liting
;;iles in deisitY of rrnderlYing rock
' cf€e PrTleter u
' :-
.. proton precession magnetometer - detects changes tn
[t"'* magnetic fielcj
"u'ift's
" lasers
/ sesismic gaPs along faults r, -..
'/ puiiurn= ind frequJn"y of earthquakes : :-,:1.'
uno*uf"tts animalbehavio ",',' l..
,':,'.,,'.'',''',ir-..;':",-'
'/ ,,
.
{CI
,/, changes in wateri#;iltb'Jity' t**pe.rature in
n*i' 16
", :x1"#:3?".#Tl,o*r ,."=irliyily. . ,-----,-^li..a,^ deep *ullt ',,ti, '-,-
.,,i.,,.
tt,
33. , r .,,..
)> rocks contain minute amounts of magnetic minerals that align with the
earth's magnetic field
}.directionofalignmentandinclinationfromthehorizonta|indicatesthe
position of the magneiic Pol"
within the rocks
the time and place the rocks formed
n studies show that poles were in.different positions relative to a continent
at various times in the geologic past
t
"-o'",1it';:,'", had moved
(2) continents had moved
- continents stationary, poles had moved: paleomaqnetibally determined
pole positions for a particular time should be the same or all
continents
- continents had moved, poles stationary: pole positions slrould differ
among the continents
34. SEA FLOOR READIF,IG
-- Hess,oroposed that the sea-floor
mighi, fYlr)i/rn^
I I rv v il ty
:l
crest of the MOR doivn the flanks
to disappear finally'by plunging
,- spreading'center = ridge crest
- subduction = sliding of the sea
neath a continent
- Driving force of sea floor spreading:
a. Hess: SFS was clriven by ntle convection
+ Meinesz and'Holmes hy earth's internal heat
r beneath the crest,
b' j
uplift of the spreading,ridge jlstuoiunt
formed simpry permits sriding
v'rithout the help of conveltion curid:it
ll:
c' subductecJ slab is rnore dense b;g.urr" it is coid
tends to pull
the slab along as it dives .ri;i
:ii -;
,ii
Objections. :
"
a. viscosity of the magma il ,
b. rocks are very weak under tensi.bn
iili
Evidence for SFS: iii ',
1' thickening of the sedimentary r3x,"r away from
the ridge
Itl
2 the age of the sediment restiilgi on the ocean floor increases away
fronr the ririge .:ii-
,l'1..
3.stripesofmagneticanomati"s,.i.:i,
" normar earth fierd - a!_ditir13,and str'ng magnetic
intensity
" reverse _ subtracts from tfleipr*="ni-ragnetic intensity.leaving
low vatue :ii '
.
e
:'i:r
.: '
35. p uqrr. rrcrotrtigs rHEOnv
ilii
eAding (1eo8)
- or the ocean r'1or
"".1':;lT,$JLi.',-nit'ffi';iol;uu; reaturesmountain ranges'
plus o'tit'nttt; ;i '' ea4hhuakes;
volcanoes, etc illli
i:l1l i i
l:l;l I
ii{dt is part of the earth's surface
mobile slab of rocf t{{Xt
Plate = large, l'
continental
:: entirely "t idi& oceanic crust' the
idl#;oceanic
crust or both ifli
on the same plate are not
= assumed to be rigid - t*o'$[drus
- motion .^la*irro tb each othe;fii
th Othgnl
in -r:^^ relative
iiiin/linot Plates:
Major plates: il;,'--
,,.it.
: li r. Southeast Asian-
1. American ,rli z. Nur"u
2. Eurasian :ii'
3. CarriC"an
3. African ::'
i. inJiun-Arlstralian ''ii 4' Arabta
Lrqr'6' Philippine
5. pacific ti ,5
6. A.ntartic "l
..^
, iirr
outer shetl
L.iihosphere = earth's rigid i!
Astenosphere = Low Velocity
Zonei rlue to an incre
=azonetrratnerr.au*$.pr"='icaltyduetoanincrease
in Pressure and terRberature allowing the plates to
iuv"t
= acts as a runritliilS
move
.l
I 'ii
distinit unit' all maior interactions
plate b 'oundaries
between pates'occur along
I
i* ' "
- ^!:
t,:
'r" a mountain building
-rnd
seismic activitY' volcanlsm ,
' !i:
where plates
a' divergent nouhdaiiS:- : maierial from nff'.v,:
tt tllupyvellin$ of
upu*,i"=iift'*g
t; create new sea floor:r'
36. :,
b. conver-gent beundai-ies = wnere . plates Inove
together, causing orte of the slabs of the liihosphere to
be consumed into tHe mantle as it descends an
overriding plate
c. transform biundaries = whet'e plates slide
past eactr other creating or destroying lithosphere
i
::.
Features:
.;i.
;r 11..,
A. Divergent Boundaries 'iii: :
a. oceanic divergence - mif,1ked by the crest of the MOR
and basaltic voicanoes :i'ii:
ex. Boun'dary behrueeriliazca and Pacific plates
'1,
b. continental divergence * niarked by rift valleys
ex. East African rift vallqys' Red Sea
'
.t,:
B. Convergent boundaries :''
a. oceanic-oceanic' .onuBrg"n.* : ?, 9::alit plates
converge, one plaie subducts under the other
a.1 Wadati-Benioff zones of earthquakes
a.2 volcanoes I.
a.3 island arcs (Philippines, Japan, Tonga, Mariana)
a.4 inner wall of the"trench consists of a subduction
complex and fore-arc basin
tVr:fe. Marianas type; fensioiip/ environment,' sfeep-ang/ed
st.rbducfiorr ',
b. oceanic-continental cohvergence - plate capped . by
oceanic crust is subducutecl under the continental piate
t:
b.1 subduciion complex,'fore-arc-basin, back-arc basin
b.2 edges of the continent become deformed intoI
young mountain ranbe "
b.3' volcanic/magmatic.a.rc within the continental crust
continental-continental,Qonvergence - collision of ilvo
corrtinents ' .::
'I
i
li
,l
37. ':llen{:j
11.1. :
l ,: l:,
' :
. ' ,' rrii":ii
r'nl
.iil;tu
':'l:i:'i
c.1 rnar-l<ed by sutr-rre zones (olci sites of subduction) , .,1:. r
,: :
c.2 majestically high mountain ranges in the interior'of
.aneWlargercontinerr:t(e.g.lndiaandAsia) r.,
':it i
:lr,:
c.3 marked by broad belt of shallow focus earthquakes
ali-,,1-l g the nu me[ousi:far-r lts
i':
3. -fransforil Bounrdaries iii
it::
marked by shailow focus eatfhqLiakes
,rl:l:
- first motion studies indicateiil$trike-slip movement
ifi
What Causes ptate motions? 'iti
illl
a. mantle convection - involves nCiO'conielJtion cells anr:i hot
mantle ii'rock
,, due to: ili
I o a.1 magrna intrusionri on the ridge brest.prrshing tlre
.
r
plates
o
,.
a-? currents mov-ing away carry the plates
*"Push i-iypothesis" :1.
:
"difficurlt to account for the ve'pical.cracks in the rift zone . ,..,iri)lli
i
b. sitbdt-rction pulls the plates :
r:.l.1,:l
*"Pull Flypothesis"
"nan account.for the tensional cracks but in.some ridges
trenches
there are no
'r1.... i
C. plurnes and hotspots ll
*plumes - narrow colLtmns of hot mantle rock that rise anci
spreacl radially outwald formiiig hotspots of active volcarrism
ex. plurne under Hawaii , i{i,,
,t$
ii:jr
i;,,,.;,,',t .i$$'
r' :',j':
.',:'.:.:
t,
,,$,
. .ii:'
,$',
,i it''
,:' ii
ii
i,:
$
ii