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Endocrine disruptors
- 1. Endocrine disruptors: The effectsbeneath the waves Plastic fragmentation, pollution and devastation
- 2. Endocrine disruptors:-how they work? Endocrine disruptors:-where are they from? Endocrine disruptors:- where are they now? Oceans:- Plastics, Pollution and Spills Case study:- Polar bear lactation Case study:- Sea bird eggs Implications for human health References Overview
- 3. Endocrine disruptors: howthey work? The Endocrine system • All multicellular organisms utilise some form of chemical control /coordination system • Hormonal control via chemical regulation and manipulation of various receptors throughout the body • Responsible for slower bodily processes such as metabolism, homeostasis, behavioural changes, growth and significant development stages throughout a life cycle; i.e. Puberty and menopause • Hormones are produced via glands throughout the body, transported via that blood and act hormone specific receptors http://www.pkdiet.com/pld_disruptors.php Endocrine disruption mechanisms: • Oestrogen inhibition – binding with oestrogen receptor and activating it • Anti-oestrogen inhibition – binding but not activating the receptor • Pathway manipulation – changing the metabolic process and disrupting homeostasis • Limitation of hormones – acting upon signalling systems which dictate hormone production
- 4. Endocrine disruptors: whereare they from? Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals (EDC) brief history • Synthetic EDCs were first created in 1920s from the by-products of petroleum extraction from crude oil (Benzene) • They take a number of forms: Biphenyls (PCBs), Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), Polycyclic armotatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Bisphenol, Polychlorinated dibenzodioxina (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and Organotin compounds (TBT) etc… • EDCs can occur naturally too : Phytoestrogen and Gonadal steroids Bisphenol - A DDTs Phthalates Present in: • Clear food containers • Plastics Effects: Breast cancer Cervical cancer Reproductive damage Present in: • Pesticides Effects: Immediate Nerve damage Paralysis Long term: Cancer Reproductive damage Present in: • Cosmetics • Vinyl • Glues • PVC Effects: Reproductive damage Male feminisation
- 5. Endocrine disruptors: whereare they now? http://www.seasidesauvage.com/blog/2013/11/11/takin- out-the-trash http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.org/l andingpage.cfm?articleid=ca.v056n05 p148b http://culturechange.org/e-letter-plastics.html http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/a ug/01/india-cities-drown-sewage-waste Agriculture • Pesticide leaching • Ground water pollution • Run off Landfill • Un-recycled containers • Soil contamination • Run off Littering and fly tipping • Soil contamination • Food web leaching • Bioaccumulation Waterways • Sewage treatment • Industrial run off • Chemical dumping • Littering • Urban storm water • Shipping fuel • Tourism and leisure • Fishing debris
- 6. Oceans: Plastics, Pollutionand Spills http://www.cruiselawnews.com/tags/ sewage/ http://www.conserveturtles.org/velador.php? page=velart78 http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2 010/aug/03/gulf-oil-spill-chemicals-epa http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc- oceans/priority-areas/rio-20-ocean/blueprint-for-the- future-we-want/marine-pollution/ Shipping pollution • Fuel leak • Waste dumping • Cargo loss • Hull treatment Sewage treatment • Synthetic hormones • Urban wastewater • Pharmaceuticals • Household cleaners Spills • Dispersal agents • Crude oil • Chemical slicks Agriculture runoff • Accumulation throughout the river • Pesticides https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FjT8GG0ETQg Plastic bioaccumulation • Plastic fragments • Eaten by fish • Fish eaten by predators • Predators effected by higher EDC levels
- 7. Case study: Polarbear lactation http://classroom.synonym.com/ effects-bioaccumulation- ecosystem-13721.html http://reichi123.blogspot.co.uk/ Knott et al (2012) • Mid to late lactation (9 – 12 months old cubs) caused higher levels of PCB transfer to cubs via maternal lactation • Maternal fasting reduced dietary bioaccumulation in the mothers polar bear, but heighted PCB concentration in lactation • Limited prey and lower body mass, increase PCB concentration in milk • Polar bear survival depends on the cubs accumulation of immuno-rich nutrients and growth hormones from its mother • PCB levels through milk consumption in the cubs exceeded toxicity guidelines • Cubs are at great risk of significant PCB bioaccumulation as they age • High risk of impaired immune responses, growth retardation and learning deficits
- 8. Case study: Seabird eggs http://www.arkive.org/sooty-tern/sterna-fuscata/image- G45106.html Bouwman et al (2012) • PCB, DDT and DDE where recorded in two sea bird species in the Indian Ocean; the Common Noddy and the Sooty Tern • Samples of chemical concentration and lipid content were measured within the bird eggs, in addition to the egg shell thickness • Lipid content is crucial for the development of the foetal chick • Results found that PCB, DDT and DDE was significantly higher in Sooty Tern than the Common Noddy • The Sooty Tern had almost 13% thinner egg shell than the Common Noddy, but a higher lipid content • Thinner egg shells lead to higher breakage rate and decreased hatch rate • Reduced hatching success = population decline • High levels of PCB in chicks, implies increased bioaccumulation as they age
- 9. Implications for humanhealth Europrean Food Safety Authority • EDC levels in food are too low to be of major concern • Typical Daily Intake (TDI) level have been advised whilst further investigation is conducted • “No consumer health risk” – EFSA (2015) Bioaccumulation in humans • Consumption of EDC rich fish and crustaceans have higher exposure levels in the wild • Continuous exposure throughout life from a variety of sources (urban pollution, water pollution, household pollution) potentially bioaccumulates Further model development and testing • Most testing focuses on the affects of a single EDC and its immediate implications • New modelling is required to test affects of exposure from a variety of EDCs in a numbers of different forms – “The cocktail effect” • Lifespan exposure and later life bioaccumulation assessment is required • Discrediting research conducted on animals as an invalid comparison of human response to EDCs, needs further investigation. Oceanic food stock contamination • As consumer demand increase, EDC pollution in the ocean may rise • EDC bioaccumulation may rise • EDCs in fish stocks may rise • EDC consumption may exceed TDI levels
- 10. ReferencesAdenugba, A., Khan,S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846 Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205 Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64 Corradetti,B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi,G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203 Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224 Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102 Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12 Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138 Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis,I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris,G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2 Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268 Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402 Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61 Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment, Vol 408: 2995-3043 Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553 Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disruptingeffects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18 Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214 Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144 Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390 Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861 Quinete, N., Schettgen, T., Bertram, J., Kraus, T. (2014). Occurrence and distributionof PCB metabolites in blood and their potential health effects in humans: a review. Environmental science pollution research, Vol 21: 11951-11972 Revathi, P., Lyapparaj, P., Vasanthi, L., Munuswamy, N., Krishnan, M. (2014). Ultrastructural changes during spermatogenesis, biochemical and hormonal evidences of testicular toxicity caused by TBT in freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Environmental toxicology, Vol 29: 1171-1181 Torres, J., Leite, C., Krauss, T., Weber, R. (2014) Landfill mining from a deposit of the chlorine/organochlorine industry as a source of dioxin contamination of animal feed and assessment of the responsible processess. Environmental science and pollution research, Vol 20: 1958-1965 UNEP. (2003) Regionally based assessment of persistent toxic substances. Global report 2003. United nations. UNEP chemicals. Switzerland Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J., Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian journal of andrology, Vol 16: 71-80
Editor's Notes
- #4 Lock and key mechanism – Metabolic response occurs only when the correct hormone (due to its shape) locks with its counterpart receptor (shaped specifically to receive the hormone) Example response pathway – Steroid produce, Hormone (estradiol) locks into receptor (estrogen), creates hormone-receptor complex, mRNA procducetion of vitellogenin occurs, Vitellogenin is produced References used: Campbell, J., Reece, J., Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R. (2008) Biology. 8th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cumming. Benjamin Cumming ltd. San Francisco Willmer, P., Stone, G., Johnston, I. (2005) Environmental physiology of animals. 2nd ed. Blackwells science. Blackwells publishing Ltd. Oxford
- #5 Bisphenol-A – mimics female estrogen – in most household objects Phalhates – PVC, cosmetics, glues – stops testosterone release in foetal development resulting in more female offspring or male feminisation Impacts a different stages of development i.e whilst in the womb – Foetal accumulation of EDCs result in later life conplications References used: Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214 Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390 Adenugba, A., Khan, S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846 UNEP. (2003) Regionally based assessment of persistent toxic substances. Global report 2003. United nations. UNEP chemicals. Switzerland
- #6 Agriculture – DDT from crop treatment is leached into ground water and can contaminate the soil – soil micro-organisms can be killed in addition to fungal hyphae with aid nitrogen uptake in plants. Also cause significant damage to soil biodiversity. Ground water leaches into waterways and eventually river systems which has negative affects on freshwater water invertebrates and fish – death in inverts – lower sperm production in fish and reproductive damage Run off from heavy rain also aids the transport of DDT into waterways Landfills – Similar to agriculture in its exposure to ground water and waterways. Scavengers such as birds, mice and rats; feed on waste and in-take EDC which in turn can add to bioaccumulation in their predators – Rats and raptors Littering and fly tipping – littering from leisure activates (camping, hiking, walking) produce EDC presence in natural habitat areas (woodland, lake, reserves) which in turn is utilised by the wildlife. Birds - nesting material. Scavenging also allows for a ptahway for EDCs to bioaccumulation within a food chain. Mice and owls. Fly tipping of white goods also increases wildlife exposure to toxic aerobic EDC gases. Waterways – Industrial run-off of EDCs and sewage treatment dumping causes increase EDC concentrations in streams and rivers. Storm drainage and urban drainage systems also increase EDC levels. Boating, fishing and most human leisure activities as increase EDCs in watersystems in someway, be it via littering or fuel leaks etc. References used: Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61 Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disruptin effects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18 Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224 Torres, J., Leite, C., Krauss, T., Weber, R. (2014) Landfill mining from a deposit of the chlorine/organochlorine industry as a source of dioxin contamination of animal feed and assessment of the responsible processess. Environmental science and pollution research, Vol 20: 1958-1965 Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553 Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment, Vol 408: 2995-3043
- #7 The Ocean is possibly the most adversely impacted habitats – all run off and leaching EDCs will eventually end up in the seas and oceans On top of waterway EDCs, the ocean is also directly impacted Sewage treatment – increase estrogens and steroid concentration in the water which impact on fishes ability to breed causing male feminisation, reduced sperm count and gonad deformation. Ultimately impacts on population numbers. – present before of hormonal contraception and pharmaceuticals Chemical spills – Spills such as crude oil deposit EDCs on the surface sediments which impact upon breeding fish and fish eggs. Shipping – Pollution from fuel leaks and exhaust emissions from shipping boats, release EDCs into the water which can either impact the fish via immediate adsorption or they are deposited into the sediment where they can stay dormant for many years until disturbed. Tributyltin (TBT) which is used to paint on the hull of boats to reduce barnacle accumulation, leaches into the water and has demonstrated significant impacts on spermatogenesis in marine fish and invertebrates. Plastic fragmentation- Plastic debris either from littering or accidental release into the sea, is fragmented overtime due to exposure to the elements. The particulate plastics are then circulated throughout the ocean where it absorbs more EDCs that it may be exposed to within the water. Marine fish consume the particulate plastics with high concentrations of EDCs, which are in turn eaten by predators. Bioaccumulation occurs throughout the trophic levels with increasing concentrations of EDC. References used: Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268 Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis, I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris, G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2 Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138 Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12 Revathi, P., Lyapparaj, P., Vasanthi, L., Munuswamy, N., Krishnan, M. (2014). Ultrastructural changes during spermatogenesis, biochemical and hormonal evidences of testicular toxicity caused by TBT in freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Environmental toxicology, Vol 29: 1171-1181 Corradetti, B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi, G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203
- #8 Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402 Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification – The magnification of EDC concentration through each trophic level due to each individual organism storing varying levels of EDCs within their bodily tissues. Upon consumption these EDCs are transferred to the predator via decomposition of the bodily tissues. They are then re-adsorbed into the predators tissues until they are consumed by a larger predator. Apex predators experience the highest concentrations of EDC due to the bioaccumulation which has already occur within all the trophic levels prior to reaching the apex predator. References used: Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York
- #9 Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64
- #10 Fishing – eating contaminated fish Exposure – Tourism exposure to leached chemicals in the water Reduced food availability References used: Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861 Quinete, N., Schettgen, T., Bertram, J., Kraus, T. (2014). Occurrence and distribution of PCB metabolites in blood and their potential health effects in humans: a review. Environmental science pollution research, Vol 21: 11951-11972 Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J., Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian journal of andrology, Vol 16: 71-80 Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205 Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144 Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102
- #11 Adenugba, A., Khan, S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846 Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205 Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64 Corradetti, B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi, G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203 Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224 Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102 Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12 Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138 Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis, I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris, G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2 Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268 Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402 Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61 Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment, Vol 408: 2995-3043 Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553 Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disrupting effects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18 Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214 Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144 Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390 Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861 Quinete, N., Schettgen, T., Bertram, J., Kraus, T. (2014). Occurrence and distribution of PCB metabolites in blood and their potential health effects in humans: a review. Environmental science pollution research, Vol 21: 11951-11972 Revathi, P., Lyapparaj, P., Vasanthi, L., Munuswamy, N., Krishnan, M. (2014). Ultrastructural changes during spermatogenesis, biochemical and hormonal evidences of testicular toxicity caused by TBT in freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Environmental toxicology, Vol 29: 1171-1181 Torres, J., Leite, C., Krauss, T., Weber, R. (2014) Landfill mining from a deposit of the chlorine/organochlorine industry as a source of dioxin contamination of animal feed and assessment of the responsible processess. Environmental science and pollution research, Vol 20: 1958-1965 UNEP. (2003) Regionally based assessment of persistent toxic substances. Global report 2003. United nations. UNEP chemicals. Switzerland Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J., Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian journal of andrology, Vol 16: 71-80