2. Endocrine disruptors:- how they work?
Endocrine disruptors:-where are they from?
Endocrine disruptors:- where are they now?
Oceans:- Plastics, Pollution and Spills
Case study:- Polar bear lactation
Case study:- Sea bird eggs
Implications for human health
References
Overview
3. Endocrine disruptors: how they work?
The Endocrine system
• All multicellular organisms
utilise some form of chemical
control /coordination system
• Hormonal control via chemical
regulation and manipulation of
various receptors throughout
the body
• Responsible for slower bodily
processes such as metabolism,
homeostasis, behavioural
changes, growth and
significant development
stages throughout a life cycle;
i.e. Puberty and menopause
• Hormones are produced via
glands throughout the body,
transported via that blood and
act hormone specific receptors
http://www.pkdiet.com/pld_disruptors.php
Endocrine disruption
mechanisms:
• Oestrogen
inhibition – binding
with oestrogen
receptor and
activating it
• Anti-oestrogen
inhibition – binding
but not activating
the receptor
• Pathway manipulation – changing the
metabolic process and disrupting
homeostasis
• Limitation of hormones – acting upon
signalling systems which dictate hormone
production
4. Endocrine disruptors: where are they from?
Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals
(EDC) brief history
• Synthetic EDCs were first created in 1920s from the by-products of petroleum
extraction from crude oil (Benzene)
• They take a number of forms: Biphenyls (PCBs), Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs),
Polycyclic armotatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Bisphenol, Polychlorinated
dibenzodioxina (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and Organotin
compounds (TBT) etc…
• EDCs can occur naturally too : Phytoestrogen and Gonadal steroids
Bisphenol - A DDTs Phthalates
Present in:
• Clear food
containers
• Plastics
Effects:
Breast cancer
Cervical cancer
Reproductive
damage
Present in:
• Pesticides
Effects:
Immediate
Nerve damage
Paralysis
Long term:
Cancer
Reproductive damage
Present in:
• Cosmetics
• Vinyl
• Glues
• PVC
Effects:
Reproductive damage
Male feminisation
5. Endocrine disruptors: where are they now?
http://www.seasidesauvage.com/blog/2013/11/11/takin-
out-the-trash
http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.org/l
andingpage.cfm?articleid=ca.v056n05
p148b
http://culturechange.org/e-letter-plastics.html
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/a
ug/01/india-cities-drown-sewage-waste
Agriculture
• Pesticide
leaching
• Ground water
pollution
• Run off
Landfill
• Un-recycled containers
• Soil contamination
• Run off
Littering and fly tipping
• Soil contamination
• Food web leaching
• Bioaccumulation
Waterways
• Sewage treatment
• Industrial run off
• Chemical dumping
• Littering
• Urban storm water
• Shipping fuel
• Tourism and leisure
• Fishing debris
6. Oceans: Plastics, Pollution and Spills
http://www.cruiselawnews.com/tags/
sewage/
http://www.conserveturtles.org/velador.php?
page=velart78
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2
010/aug/03/gulf-oil-spill-chemicals-epa
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-
oceans/priority-areas/rio-20-ocean/blueprint-for-the-
future-we-want/marine-pollution/
Shipping pollution
• Fuel leak
• Waste dumping
• Cargo loss
• Hull treatment
Sewage treatment
• Synthetic hormones
• Urban wastewater
• Pharmaceuticals
• Household cleaners
Spills
• Dispersal agents
• Crude oil
• Chemical slicks
Agriculture runoff
• Accumulation
throughout the
river
• Pesticides
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FjT8GG0ETQg
Plastic bioaccumulation
• Plastic fragments
• Eaten by fish
• Fish eaten by predators
• Predators effected by
higher EDC levels
7. Case study: Polar bear lactation
http://classroom.synonym.com/
effects-bioaccumulation-
ecosystem-13721.html
http://reichi123.blogspot.co.uk/
Knott et al (2012)
• Mid to late lactation (9 – 12 months old
cubs) caused higher levels of PCB
transfer to cubs via maternal lactation
• Maternal fasting reduced dietary
bioaccumulation in the mothers polar
bear, but heighted PCB concentration
in lactation
• Limited prey and lower body mass,
increase PCB concentration in milk
• Polar bear survival depends on the cubs
accumulation of immuno-rich nutrients
and growth hormones from its mother
• PCB levels through milk consumption in
the cubs exceeded toxicity guidelines
• Cubs are at great risk of significant PCB
bioaccumulation as they age
• High risk of impaired immune
responses, growth retardation and
learning deficits
8. Case study: Sea bird eggs
http://www.arkive.org/sooty-tern/sterna-fuscata/image-
G45106.html
Bouwman et al (2012)
• PCB, DDT and DDE where recorded in two sea bird
species in the Indian Ocean; the Common Noddy and
the Sooty Tern
• Samples of chemical concentration and lipid content
were measured within the bird eggs, in addition to
the egg shell thickness
• Lipid content is crucial for the development of the
foetal chick
• Results found that PCB, DDT and DDE was
significantly higher in Sooty Tern than the Common
Noddy
• The Sooty Tern had almost 13% thinner egg shell than
the Common Noddy, but a higher lipid content
• Thinner egg shells lead to higher breakage rate and
decreased hatch rate
• Reduced hatching success = population decline
• High levels of PCB in chicks, implies increased
bioaccumulation as they age
9. Implications for human health
Europrean Food Safety Authority
• EDC levels in food are too low
to be of major concern
• Typical Daily Intake (TDI) level
have been advised whilst
further investigation is
conducted
• “No consumer health risk” –
EFSA (2015)
Bioaccumulation in humans
• Consumption of EDC rich fish
and crustaceans have higher
exposure levels in the wild
• Continuous exposure
throughout life from a variety
of sources (urban pollution,
water pollution, household
pollution) potentially
bioaccumulates
Further model development and testing
• Most testing focuses on the affects of a single
EDC and its immediate implications
• New modelling is required to test affects of
exposure from a variety of EDCs in a numbers of
different forms – “The cocktail effect”
• Lifespan exposure and later life
bioaccumulation assessment is required
• Discrediting research conducted on animals as
an invalid comparison of human response to
EDCs, needs further investigation.
Oceanic food stock contamination
• As consumer demand increase, EDC pollution
in the ocean may rise
• EDC bioaccumulation may rise
• EDCs in fish stocks may rise
• EDC consumption may exceed TDI levels
10. ReferencesAdenugba, A., Khan, S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846
Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205
Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64
Corradetti,B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi,G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203
Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224
Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102
Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12
Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138
Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis,I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris,G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological
risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2
Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268
Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402
Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef
catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61
Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment,
Vol 408: 2995-3043
Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553
Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disruptingeffects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18
Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214
Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York
Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas.
Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144
Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390
Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861
Quinete, N., Schettgen, T., Bertram, J., Kraus, T. (2014). Occurrence and distributionof PCB metabolites in blood and their potential health effects in humans: a review. Environmental science pollution research, Vol 21: 11951-11972
Revathi, P., Lyapparaj, P., Vasanthi, L., Munuswamy, N., Krishnan, M. (2014). Ultrastructural changes during spermatogenesis, biochemical and hormonal evidences of testicular toxicity caused by TBT in freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Environmental toxicology, Vol 29: 1171-1181
Torres, J., Leite, C., Krauss, T., Weber, R. (2014) Landfill mining from a deposit of the chlorine/organochlorine industry as a source of dioxin contamination of animal feed and assessment of the responsible processess. Environmental science and pollution
research, Vol 20: 1958-1965
UNEP. (2003) Regionally based assessment of persistent toxic substances. Global report 2003. United nations. UNEP chemicals. Switzerland
Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J., Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian journal of andrology, Vol 16: 71-80
Editor's Notes
Lock and key mechanism – Metabolic response occurs only when the correct hormone (due to its shape) locks with its counterpart receptor (shaped specifically to receive the hormone)
Example response pathway – Steroid produce, Hormone (estradiol) locks into receptor (estrogen), creates hormone-receptor complex, mRNA procducetion of vitellogenin occurs, Vitellogenin is produced
References used:
Campbell, J., Reece, J., Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R. (2008) Biology. 8th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cumming. Benjamin Cumming ltd. San Francisco
Willmer, P., Stone, G., Johnston, I. (2005) Environmental physiology of animals. 2nd ed. Blackwells science. Blackwells publishing Ltd. Oxford
Bisphenol-A – mimics female estrogen – in most household objects
Phalhates – PVC, cosmetics, glues – stops testosterone release in foetal development resulting in more female offspring or male feminisation
Impacts a different stages of development i.e whilst in the womb – Foetal accumulation of EDCs result in later life conplications
References used:
Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214
Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390
Adenugba, A., Khan, S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846
UNEP. (2003) Regionally based assessment of persistent toxic substances. Global report 2003. United nations. UNEP chemicals. Switzerland
Agriculture – DDT from crop treatment is leached into ground water and can contaminate the soil – soil micro-organisms can be killed in addition to fungal hyphae with aid nitrogen uptake in plants. Also cause significant damage to soil biodiversity. Ground water leaches into waterways and eventually river systems which has negative affects on freshwater water invertebrates and fish – death in inverts – lower sperm production in fish and reproductive damage Run off from heavy rain also aids the transport of DDT into waterways
Landfills – Similar to agriculture in its exposure to ground water and waterways. Scavengers such as birds, mice and rats; feed on waste and in-take EDC which in turn can add to bioaccumulation in their predators – Rats and raptors
Littering and fly tipping – littering from leisure activates (camping, hiking, walking) produce EDC presence in natural habitat areas (woodland, lake, reserves) which in turn is utilised by the wildlife. Birds - nesting material. Scavenging also allows for a ptahway for EDCs to bioaccumulation within a food chain. Mice and owls. Fly tipping of white goods also increases wildlife exposure to toxic aerobic EDC gases.
Waterways – Industrial run-off of EDCs and sewage treatment dumping causes increase EDC concentrations in streams and rivers. Storm drainage and urban drainage systems also increase EDC levels. Boating, fishing and most human leisure activities as increase EDCs in watersystems in someway, be it via littering or fuel leaks etc.
References used:
Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61
Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disruptin effects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18
Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224
Torres, J., Leite, C., Krauss, T., Weber, R. (2014) Landfill mining from a deposit of the chlorine/organochlorine industry as a source of dioxin contamination of animal feed and assessment of the responsible processess. Environmental science and pollution research, Vol 20: 1958-1965
Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553
Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment, Vol 408: 2995-3043
The Ocean is possibly the most adversely impacted habitats – all run off and leaching EDCs will eventually end up in the seas and oceans
On top of waterway EDCs, the ocean is also directly impacted
Sewage treatment – increase estrogens and steroid concentration in the water which impact on fishes ability to breed causing male feminisation, reduced sperm count and gonad deformation. Ultimately impacts on population numbers. – present before of hormonal contraception and pharmaceuticals
Chemical spills – Spills such as crude oil deposit EDCs on the surface sediments which impact upon breeding fish and fish eggs.
Shipping – Pollution from fuel leaks and exhaust emissions from shipping boats, release EDCs into the water which can either impact the fish via immediate adsorption or they are deposited into the sediment where they can stay dormant for many years until disturbed. Tributyltin (TBT) which is used to paint on the hull of boats to reduce barnacle accumulation, leaches into the water and has demonstrated significant impacts on spermatogenesis in marine fish and invertebrates.
Plastic fragmentation- Plastic debris either from littering or accidental release into the sea, is fragmented overtime due to exposure to the elements. The particulate plastics are then circulated throughout the ocean where it absorbs more EDCs that it may be exposed to within the water. Marine fish consume the particulate plastics with high concentrations of EDCs, which are in turn eaten by predators. Bioaccumulation occurs throughout the trophic levels with increasing concentrations of EDC.
References used:
Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268
Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis, I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris, G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2
Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138
Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12
Revathi, P., Lyapparaj, P., Vasanthi, L., Munuswamy, N., Krishnan, M. (2014). Ultrastructural changes during spermatogenesis, biochemical and hormonal evidences of testicular toxicity caused by TBT in freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Environmental toxicology, Vol 29: 1171-1181
Corradetti, B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi, G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203
Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402
Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification – The magnification of EDC concentration through each trophic level due to each individual organism storing varying levels of EDCs within their bodily tissues. Upon consumption these EDCs are transferred to the predator via decomposition of the bodily tissues. They are then re-adsorbed into the predators tissues until they are consumed by a larger predator. Apex predators experience the highest concentrations of EDC due to the bioaccumulation which has already occur within all the trophic levels prior to reaching the apex predator.
References used:
Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York
Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64
Fishing – eating contaminated fish
Exposure – Tourism exposure to leached chemicals in the water
Reduced food availability
References used:
Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861
Quinete, N., Schettgen, T., Bertram, J., Kraus, T. (2014). Occurrence and distribution of PCB metabolites in blood and their potential health effects in humans: a review. Environmental science pollution research, Vol 21: 11951-11972
Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J., Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian journal of andrology, Vol 16: 71-80
Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205
Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144
Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102
Adenugba, A., Khan, S., Taylor-Robinson, S., Cos, J., Toledano, M., Thillainayagam, A., Bansi, D., Thomas, H., Gibson, R., Beck, A. (2009) Polychlorinated biphenyls in bile of patients with biliary tract cancer. Chemosphere, Vol 76: 841-846
Barone, G., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Garofalo, R., Castiglia, D., Storelli, M. ( 2014). PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs in fishery products: occurrence, congener profile and compliance with European union legislation. Food and chemical toxicology, Vol 74: 200-205
Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Yive, N., Tatayah, V., Loken, K., Skaare, J., Polder, A. (2012) First report of chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbon pollutants in marine bird eggs from an oceanic Indian Ocean island, Environmental Research, Vol 188: 53-64
Corradetti, B., Stronati, A., Tosti, L., Manicardi, G., Carnevali, O., Bizzaro, D. (2013) Bis-(2-ethylexhyl) phthalate impairs spermatogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Sciverse sciencesdirect, Vol 13: 195-203
Cox, E., Major, D., Edwards, E. (2000) Natural attenuation of 1,2-dichloroethane in groundwater at a chemical manufacturing facility. Natural attenuation considerations and case studies: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, Vol 1 : 217-224
Grilo, T., Cardoso, P., Pato, P., Duarte, A., Pardal, M. ( 2014). Uptake and depuration of PCB-153 in edible shrimp Palaemonetes varians and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety Vol 101: 97-102
Hofer, T. & Steinhauser, K. (2000) Use of health criteria for estimating the hazard potential of chemicals to water in case of a spill. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, Vol 31: 1-12
Hosokawa, Y., Yasui, M., Yoshikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Susuki, M. (2003). The nationwaide investigation of endocrine disruptors in sedimetn of harbours. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 47 : 132-138
Kapsimalis, V., Panagiotopoulos, I., Talagani, P., Hatzianestis, I., Kaberi, H., Rousakis, G., Kanellopoulos, T., Hatiris, G. (2014) Organic contamintation of surface sediments in the metropolitan coastal zone of Athens, Greece: Sources, degree and ecological risk. Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 80: 1-2
Keller, V., Lloyd, R., Terry, J., Williams, R. (2015) Impact of climate change and population growth on a risk assessment for endocrine disruption in fish due to steroid and estrogens in England and Wales. Environmental pollution, Vol 197: 262 – 268
Knott, K., Boyd, D., Ylitalo, G., O’Hara, T. (2012) Lactational transfer of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls in polar bears. Chemoshpere, Vol 88: 395-402
Kroon, F., Hook, S., Jones, D., Metcalfe, S., Henderson, B., Smith, R., Warne, M., Turner, R., McKeown, A., Westcott, D. (2015) Altered transcription levels of endocrine associated genes in two fisheries species collected from the Great Barrier Reef catchment and lagoon. Marine environmental research, Vol 104: 51-61
Letcher, R., Bustnes, J., Dietz, R., Jenssen, B., Jorgensen, E., Sonne, C., Verreault, J., Vijayan, M., Gabrielsen, G. (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of the total environment, Vol 408: 2995-3043
Levengood, J & Schaeffer, D. (2010). Comparison of PCB congener profiles in the embryos and principal prey of the breeding colony of black-crowned night-herons. Journal of great lakes research, Vol 36: 548-553
Long, M., Strand, J., Lassen, P., Kruger, T., Dahllof, I., Bossi, R., Larsen, M., Wiberg-Larsen, P., Bonefeld-jorgensen, E. (2014). Endocrine-disrupting effects of compounds in Danish streams. Archives o environmental contamination and toxicology, Vol 66: 1-18
Lopez-Cervantes, M., Torres-Sanchez, L., Tobias, A., Lopez-Carrillo, L. (2004). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives, Vol 112: 207-214
Mackenzie, A., Ball, A., Virdee, S. (2001) Instant notes: Ecology. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, New York
Morck, T., Erdmann, S., Long, M., Mathiesen, L., Nielson, F., Sirsma, V., Bonefeld-Jorgensen, E., Knudsen, L. (2014). PCB concentration and Dioxin-like activity in blood samples from Danish school children and their mothers living in urban and rural areas. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, Vol 115: 134-144 Murray, T., Maffini, M., Ucci, A., Sonnenschein, C., Soto, A. (2007). Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reproductive toxicology Vol 23: 383-390
Norstrom, K., Czub, G., McLachlin, M., Hu, D., Thorne, P., Hornbuckle, K. (2010). External exposure and bioaccumulation of PCBs in humans living in a contaminated urban environment. Environment international, Vol 36: 855-861
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