This document is a student project report on an AC generator. It includes sections on the theory, working, components, efficiency, results, uses, losses, and precautions of an AC generator. The key components discussed are the field, armature, prime mover, rotor, and stator. It explains that an AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetic induction as the rotor rotates within a magnetic field. Efficiency is calculated as the ratio of output power to input power. Common uses include power generation and appliances. Losses occur from internal resistance, hysteresis in the iron cores, and mechanical factors like bearing friction.
By this we tried to generate the electricity by waste energy from speed breaker arrangement.
in this we use the spring coil mechanism of power generation through speed breaker. also our main principle of project is based on hydro electric power generation.
THIS PPT IS FULL EXPLATION OF AC GENERATOR.IT CONTAINS ALL THE TOPICS UNDER WORKING ,CUNSTRUCTION,ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES REGARDING AC GENERATOR.
IT IS HELPFULL FOR EVERY SCIENCE STUDENT.HOPE YOU ALL LIKE MY WORK.
Ceiling fan is mostly driven by the single induction motor with an efficiency of 30%.
The BLDC motor is popular now a days for a high efficiency, compactness and controllability.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
By this we tried to generate the electricity by waste energy from speed breaker arrangement.
in this we use the spring coil mechanism of power generation through speed breaker. also our main principle of project is based on hydro electric power generation.
THIS PPT IS FULL EXPLATION OF AC GENERATOR.IT CONTAINS ALL THE TOPICS UNDER WORKING ,CUNSTRUCTION,ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES REGARDING AC GENERATOR.
IT IS HELPFULL FOR EVERY SCIENCE STUDENT.HOPE YOU ALL LIKE MY WORK.
Ceiling fan is mostly driven by the single induction motor with an efficiency of 30%.
The BLDC motor is popular now a days for a high efficiency, compactness and controllability.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
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KENDRIYA VIDHYALAYA NO.1
H.E.C COLONY RANCHI – 834004
AC GENERATOR
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NAME:
CLASS:
ROLL NO.:
SUBMITTED TO:
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PHYSICS PROJECT
WORK
AC GENERATOR
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INDEX
CONTENT PAGE NO.
Certificate 4
Acknowledgement 5
Introduction 6
Theory and Working 7
Component of ACGenerator 8-11
Efficiency 12
Result 13
Uses 14
Losses in AC Generator 15-16
Precautions 17
Bibliography 18
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that of class –XII has
successfully complete the project on the topic AC
GENERATOR under the guidance of during
the year 2022-2023 in the partial fulfilment of the physics
practical examination conducted by the CBSE
SIGN. OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER SIGH OF TEACHER
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my immense gratitude to my physics teacher
for the help and
guidance he provided for completing this project.
I also thank my parents who gave their ideas and inputs in making this
project. Most of all I thank our school management, for providing us the
facilities and opportunity to do this project.
Lastly, I would like to thanks my classmates who have done this project
along with me. Their support made this project fruitful.
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INTRODUCTION
An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
The AC Generator's input supply is mechanical energy supplied by
steam turbines, gas turbines and combustion engines. The output is
an alternating electrical power in the form of alternating voltage and
current.
A generator forces electric current to flow through an external circuit. The
source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam
engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any
other source of mechanical energy.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. When the armature rotates between the magnet's poles upon an
axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature
changes continuously.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
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THEORY AND WORKING
The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow through the
field coil of the rotor.
The field coil in the rotor receives excitation through the use of slip rings
and brushes.
Two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide the
continuous connection between the field coil and the external excitation
circuit.
The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and is
connected to the output.
Each time the rotor makes one complete revolution, one complete cycle
of AC is developed.
A generator has many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.
The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator
is dependent on the field strength and speed of the rotor.
Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the
generated voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.
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COMPONENTS OF AN AC GENERATOR
Field
Armature
Prime mover
Rotor
Stator
Slip rings
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FIELD:
The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within
the generator that receive a voltage from a source (called excitation)
and produce a magnetic flux.
The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage. This
voltage is ultimately the output voltage of the AC generator.
ARMATURE:
The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is produced.
This component consists of many coils of wire that are large enough.
PRIME MOVER
The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator.
The prime mover may be any type of rotating machine, such as a diesel
engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
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ROTOR
The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator, as
shown in Figure 1.
The rotor is driven by the generator’s prime mover, which may be a steam
turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. Depending on the type of generator,
this component may be the armature or the field.
The rotor will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the
rotor will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.
STATOR
The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary.
Like the rotor, this component may be the armature or the field, depending
on the type of generator.
The stator will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the
stator will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.
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SLIP RINGS
Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to and
from the rotor of an AC generator.
The slip ring consists of a circular conducting material that is connected to
the rotor windings and insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the slip
ring as the rotor rotates. The electrical connection to the rotor is made by
connections to the brushes.
Slip rings are used in AC generators because the desired output of the
generator is a sine wave.
In a DC generator, a commutator was used to provide an output whose
current always flowed in the positive direction.
FIGURE-1
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POWER= VOLTAGE X CURRENT
EFFICIENCY
Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output to
the total power input.
Because any mechanical process experiences some losses, no AC
generators can be 100 per cent efficient.
Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated using Equation.
Efficiency = (Output /Input) X 100
OR
Efficiency = (POWER OUT/POWER IN) X 100
EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRIC GENERATOR
EFFICIENCY = POWER OUTPUT * POWER I/P
100
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RESULT
WHEN THE AXLE OF GENERATING MOTOR IS ROTATED, E.M.F. IS
PRODUCEDBY IT.
REASON: CHANGE IN FLUX THROUGH THE WINDING OF MOTOR.
THIS E.M.F. REMAINS IN THE CIRCUIT AS LONG AS AXLE IS ROTATED.
HENCE, FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IS
VERIFIED.
AS THE SPEED OF ROTOR IS INCREASED, THE VOLTAGE
AND CURRENT PRODUCED BY GENERATOR ALSO GET
INCREASED.
REASON: RATE OF CHANGE OF FLUX INCREASES.
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USES
Aircraft auxiliary power generation, wind generators, high speed gas
turbine generators.
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive systems, automotive starter generators.
An ac generator, or 'alternator', is used to produce ac voltages for
transmission via the grid system or, locally, as portable generators.
All of our household appliances run on ac current. Ex: Refrigerator, washing
machines, oven, lights, fan etc.
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LOSSES IN AC GENERATOR
1.) Internal Voltage Drop
The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators. The
armature has some amount of resistance and inductive reactance.
The combination of these make up what is known as the internal resistance,
which causes a loss in a n AC generator.
When the load current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the
internal resistance.
This voltage drop subtracts from the output voltage and, therefore,
represents generated voltage and power that is lost and not available to the
load.
2.) HYSTERESIS LOSSES
Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject to
effects from a magnetic field.
The magnetic domains of the cores are held in alignment with the field in
varying numbers, dependent upon field strength.
The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the domains not held in
alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the rotor. This
rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat.
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The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.
After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the
laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool.
This process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low
value.
To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of heat-
treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss.
3.) MECHANICAL LOSSES
Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush
friction on the commutator, and air friction (called windage), which is
caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation.
Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a
minimum.
Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of
bearing friction.
Brush friction is reduced by ensuring: proper brush seating, proper brush
use, and maintenance of proper brush tension.
A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction.
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PRECAUTIONS
Do all the connection carefully
Fix all the component on cardboard with strong glue
Do not take a high voltage LED bulb (1.5V preferred)
Use only DC motor in making the model
Before doing any experiment, please consult to
your subject teacher or lab assistance
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wikipedia.com
Google search engine
Physics NCERT book
www.youtube.com/c/knowledgecycle
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