It is well documented that the addition of antimony in pure lead increases tensile strength and reduced elongation. The goal of the present work is to identify the cause of these phenomena by investigation of the effects of the addition of Sb (1.25%) on the structure of pure continuously cast lead and lead alloy rods. The microstructure and morphology of both pure lead and lead 1.25% antimony were examined by digital optical microscope and scanning electron microscope respectively. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) was used to identify alloying elements. The results showed that the effect of additions of antimony on mechanical properties of lead-antimony alloys is mainly due to the solid solubility of the antimony element. Homogenized distribution of the antimony results in a decrease in the grain size of the pure lead. These smaller grains mean higher strength so long as there is a homogeneous grain structure
An Elementary Introduction to Intermetallics in Ball BondsChristopher Breach
This short presentation gives a brief introduction to intermetallics in wire bonds on aluminum metallization. This is an excerpt from a 2-day training course on the materials science of wire bonding.
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for use in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement.
Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (sometimes also known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production.
CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER MAGNESIUM CONDUCTOR ALLOYSRautomead Limited
CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER MAGNESIUM CONDUCTOR ALLOYS
Paper by Sir Michael Nairn, Chairman of Rautomead Limited, Dundee, Scotland, U.K.
The paper was presented at the WAI Technical Conference at Interwire, at the Georgia World Congress Center, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., April 25, 2013.
Rautomead Limited are UK-based specialists in continuous casting of non-ferrous metals and construction of continuous casting equipment for copper, copper alloys, gold and silver, dental alloys and feed rod for Conform machines.
For a period of over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design, manufacture and sale of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys.
There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries around the world.
An Elementary Introduction to Intermetallics in Ball BondsChristopher Breach
This short presentation gives a brief introduction to intermetallics in wire bonds on aluminum metallization. This is an excerpt from a 2-day training course on the materials science of wire bonding.
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for use in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement.
Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (sometimes also known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production.
CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER MAGNESIUM CONDUCTOR ALLOYSRautomead Limited
CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER MAGNESIUM CONDUCTOR ALLOYS
Paper by Sir Michael Nairn, Chairman of Rautomead Limited, Dundee, Scotland, U.K.
The paper was presented at the WAI Technical Conference at Interwire, at the Georgia World Congress Center, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., April 25, 2013.
Rautomead Limited are UK-based specialists in continuous casting of non-ferrous metals and construction of continuous casting equipment for copper, copper alloys, gold and silver, dental alloys and feed rod for Conform machines.
For a period of over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design, manufacture and sale of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys.
There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries around the world.
Plasma welding is a advanced welding process . It can be used in automatic welding systems for high quality welding requirements . It has benefits of .welding at high speed, greater penetration, narrow HAZ (heat affected zone) and minimum heat input to the job.
Characteristics of Hypoeutectic Cu-Zr Alloy Rods Manufactured by Vertical Upw...Rautomead Limited
The focus in this study is therefore on applying a vertical upwards continuous casting (VUCC) mass-production
method to the pilot-scale manufacturing of Cu-Zr alloy rods. The microstructure and physical characteristics of these
VUCC rods were subsequently investigated and compared with rods produced by CMC. In addition, the wire-drawing
capability of the VUCC rods was examined, and the adaptability of the VUCC method to the mass production of
hypoeutectic Cu-Zr alloys was fully investigated.
2.
Analysis and quantification of grain size in various dhp copper tubes manufac...Rautomead Limited
Abstract. Deoxidized High Phosphorus (DHP) Copper tubes are frequently used in numerous
industrial and household applications. To ensure the acceptability of DHP copper tubes prepared by
various industrial processes, the quality of the DHP copper tubes must be evaluated and one of the
best ways to do so is to examine the microstructure and metallography and quantify grain size. In
this paper the authors considered the average grain size of copper tube samples made traditionally
as well as by the planetary rolling and CastTube process. Because of the small thickness of the
CastTube samples, in certain circumstances traditional methods of grain counting were not
plausible and a new procedure for grain counting needed developed. This paper is about the
development and evaluation of grain sizes in continuously cast tube samples using both the
planimetric procedure (ASTM E112) and a new method, which will be herby, referred to as the
“total grain counting method”. This paper also concludes that there is a large difference in the grain
size of tubes with different manufacturing methods.
Plasma welding is a advanced welding process . It can be used in automatic welding systems for high quality welding requirements . It has benefits of .welding at high speed, greater penetration, narrow HAZ (heat affected zone) and minimum heat input to the job.
Characteristics of Hypoeutectic Cu-Zr Alloy Rods Manufactured by Vertical Upw...Rautomead Limited
The focus in this study is therefore on applying a vertical upwards continuous casting (VUCC) mass-production
method to the pilot-scale manufacturing of Cu-Zr alloy rods. The microstructure and physical characteristics of these
VUCC rods were subsequently investigated and compared with rods produced by CMC. In addition, the wire-drawing
capability of the VUCC rods was examined, and the adaptability of the VUCC method to the mass production of
hypoeutectic Cu-Zr alloys was fully investigated.
2.
Analysis and quantification of grain size in various dhp copper tubes manufac...Rautomead Limited
Abstract. Deoxidized High Phosphorus (DHP) Copper tubes are frequently used in numerous
industrial and household applications. To ensure the acceptability of DHP copper tubes prepared by
various industrial processes, the quality of the DHP copper tubes must be evaluated and one of the
best ways to do so is to examine the microstructure and metallography and quantify grain size. In
this paper the authors considered the average grain size of copper tube samples made traditionally
as well as by the planetary rolling and CastTube process. Because of the small thickness of the
CastTube samples, in certain circumstances traditional methods of grain counting were not
plausible and a new procedure for grain counting needed developed. This paper is about the
development and evaluation of grain sizes in continuously cast tube samples using both the
planimetric procedure (ASTM E112) and a new method, which will be herby, referred to as the
“total grain counting method”. This paper also concludes that there is a large difference in the grain
size of tubes with different manufacturing methods.
Investigation of the distribution of lead in three different combinations of ...Rautomead Limited
The main objective of this paper was to assess three leaded
brass samples (pending application with Copper Development
Association) using optical microscopy and mass
spectrometry to compare the distribution of lead. Based on
the mass spectrometry data, a great deal of variation was
not found within each of the samples based on five different
sample locations. Optical microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
confirmed that the lead was homogenously distributed in
brass.
Effect of water flow rate casting speed alloying element and pull distance on...Rautomead Limited
Most parameters that control the solidification of castings, and consequently,
microstructure and mechanical properties, are: chemical composition, liquid metal treatment,
cooling rate and temperature gradient. In this work, characterization of the influence
of water flow rate, casting speed, alloying element and pull distance on tensile strength,
elongation percentage and microstructure of continuous cast copper alloys has been carried
out. A significant different in tensile strength, elongation percentage and grain structure
has been investigated and it was also found that these parameters could improve the physical
and mechanical properties of samples. As a particular example, water flow rate could
improve the elongation of samples from 10% to 25%.
OPTIMIZATION OF INVESTMENT CASTING PARAMETERS OF A443 ALLUMINIUM ALLOY WITH A...IAEME Publication
In the present investigation A443 aluminium alloy has been taken to make the castings. A443 alloy comprises Silicon (4.5-6.0%), Copper (0.6%), Magnesium (0.5%), Zinc (0.5%), Manganese (0.5%) and aluminium as the balance. It is a high strength and low weight alloy used in aerospace engineering application. Owing to their good corrosion properties, high specific strength and low costs for shape forming, cast aluminium alloys are wised used in engineering applications, such as engines for vehicles, helicopters and fan hubs, etc. Due to its above features it could also be used in making engine blocks and other automotive parts. Reduce the shrinkage defects from the casting a trace element is added in the A443 aluminium alloy and optimize investment casting parameter using Taguchi method.
Microstructure and Hardness of Aluminium Alloy- Fused Silica Particulate Comp...AM Publications
Aluminum matrix composites (AMCs) refer to the class of light weight high performance aluminum centric
material systems. The reinforcement in AMCs could be in the form of continuous/discontinuous fibers, whiskers or particulates,
in volume fractions. Properties of AMCs can be tailored to the demands of different industrial applications by suitable
combinations of matrix, reinforcement and processing route. This work focuses on the fabrication of aluminum alloy (LM13)
matrix composites reinforced with 9%, 12% &15% fused silica particulates using stir casting route. The microstructure and
hardness of the fabricated composite were analyzed and reported.
Study of effect of process parameter setting on porosity levels of aluminium ...IOSR Journals
:This paper discusses the study and examined effect of die casting process parameters on porosity in
aluminium alloy SAE 308 by using Taguchi method. In any die casting industry porosity is a very serious
problem faced by production department and also being an invisible defect it is not identified visually in running
production. It is shown in this work that die casting parameters which are related with machine such as first
phase speed, second phase speed, first phase length and injection pressure all have significant influence on
porosity level. The quality assessment of the die casting part was based on porosity measurement. The
experiment have been performed as per the combination of levels of different process parameters suggested by
L9 orthogonal array and conformation experiments have been performed to validate the optimum levels of
different parameters
STUDIES ON ALUMINIUM-SILICON EUTECTIC ALLOY CASTING AND DESIGN APPROACH OF IT...IAEME Publication
LM-6 alloy, an eutectic alloy of Aluminium and Silicon is widely used in automobile industries and aircraft industries due to its high strength to weight ratio, high wear resistance, corrosion resistance etc. In this project work, to improve the mechanical properties of LM-6 alloy such as tensile strength, hardness and percentage elongation, modification treatment is carried out along with grain refinement, fluxing and degassing. Modification is a treatment of metal in molten condition which leads to the formation of fine grain structure improves the mechanical properties of the metal.
ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL AND MICRO STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF AL BASED METAL MATRI...IAEME Publication
In recent years Metal matrix composites have been considered as one of the most important materials which offer excellent wear resistance and stiffness, low weight, economic and high
strength to weight ratio. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) reinforced with ball milled nano particles ,also called metal matrix –nano composite, are spreading rapidly in worldwide due to their various demands in the field of engineering and science like automobiles, aerospace, energy, defence,materials, electronics and bio technology.
A practical approach to eliminate defects in gravity die cast al alloy castin...eSAT Journals
Abstract
This paper deals with elimination of defects in aluminium alloy castings produced by gravity die casting process. The main intention of work is to investigate the defects and improve quality of a gravity die cast component using Computer Aided Casting Simulation Software. In this study an industrial gravity casting die is used which was producing defective components. The die and components produced by the die are studied to eliminate the defects using virtual simulations. The defects in the components are identified to be solidification shrinkage, cracks, unfilled riser and incomplete mould cavity. The reasons for the defects are analyzed as either improper selection of process parameters, or improper design of gating and risering system. SOLIDCast simulation software is used for simulating the solidification process of casting and visualizing outputs showing possible problematic areas or defects which may occur in the cast product. The work is carried out in two stages. In first stage, few test castings are produced by modifying the process parameters (pouring temperature, pouring time, pre heat and alloy type) and results are compared with simulation results produced using same parameters. The pouring and simulation results are observed to be in good accordance with each other. In second stage, number of virtual iterations of casting is performed by changing riser dimensions. It was found from the simulation results that riser with 35mm diameter is required to produce casting with zero defects. The die is modified accordingly with the simulation results and metal is poured. The castings produced are observed to be sound and contain no defects; and also it is verified that solidification simulation helps in locating the defects, eliminating them and ultimately improving the quality of castings without any shop-floor trails.
Keywords: Aluminum-Alloys, Casting Defects, Gravity Die Casting, Material Density and SOLIDCast Simulation
A Study on Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Alloy (LM6) Reinforced with SiC...IOSR Journals
This work deals with fabricating or producing aluminium based metal matrix composite and then
studying its microstructure and mechanical properties such as tensile strength, impact strength and wear
behavior of produced test specimen. In the present study a modest attempt has been made to develop aluminium
based MMCs with reinforcing material, with an objective to develop a conventional low cast method of
producing MMCs and to obtain homogeneous dispersion of reinforced material. To achieve this objective stir
casting technique has been adopted. Aluminium Alloy (LM6) and SiC, Fly Ash has been chosen as matrix and
reinforcing material respectively. Experiment has been conducted by varying weight fraction of Fly Ash ( 5%
and 15%) while keeping SiC constant(5%). The result shown that the increase in addition of Fly Ash increases
the Tensile Strength, Impact Strength, Wear Resistance of the specimen and decreases the percentage of
Elongation
Solidification Simulation of Aluminum Alloy Casting – A Theoretical and Exper...IJMER
Aluminium alloy castings are extensively used in general engineering, automotive and
aerospace industries due to their excellent castability, machinability and high strength-to-weight ratio.
The major problem with aluminium castings is relatively high shrinkage of between 3.5 to 8.5% that
occurs during solidification. This study aims to theoretically analyze shrinkage behavior of cast
aluminium alloy and to conduct solidification simulation of casting using finite element technique based
on the experimental findings. A detailed finite element solidification simulation of A356 aluminum alloy
casting in sand mould is performed, and numerical simulations are carried out considering interface
resistance and with out interface resistance. Few test castings are poured with ordinary riser and
insulated riser, and time - temperature history is plotted with the help of thermocouples to verify the
results. It is observed that the results obtained by the solidification simulation are helpful in optimizing
casting yield, predicting shrinkage, reducing number of trials and rejections.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
EFFECT OF GRAPHITE ON MECHANICAL AND MACHINING PROPERTIES OF Al-BRONZE PREPAR...IAEME Publication
Aluminum bronzes are the highest strength standard copper based alloys. For their combination of high strength, excellent corrosion and wear resistance these alloys have a wide
acceptance in engineering applications, so studying their improvement still important. In the present study, a base aluminum bronze alloy with a chemical composition of (Cu – 11%Al) is prepared basing on powder metallurgy technique with a determined suitable compacting pressure of 400MPa,
sintering for 1 hour in 920°C in a vacuum furnace (10-4 tor), and then quenching from 950°C in cold water and tempered at 4500C for 2hrs.
In the present investigation the corrosion measurements were carried out in 5% NaCl
aqueous solution, 2.5% HCl. solution for predetermined time intervals and varying
percentage concentrations of HCl solution at room temperature. Kinetics of corrosion
effect on samples of Al-Zn alloy, Al-Zn –5wt% flyash and silicon carbide particles and
Al-Zn –10wt% flyash and silicon carbide particles as reinforcement in composite are
studied.
Structural Hardening Mechanisms of Lead-Cadmium-Bismuth-Silver Alloys for Bat...IJCMESJOURNAL
The return of equilibrium of structure state of supersaturated solid solutions of lead-cadmium-Bismuth-silver alloys has been studied by different techniques: hardness, micro-hardness, microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Two structural states were considered: raw casting alloy and rehomogenized alloy. We studied alloys Pb2%Cd1%Bi and Pb3,2%Cd2%Bi to which we added the following concentrations by weight of silver to elaborate our alloys: 0,07% Ag, 0,15% Ag, 0, 2% Ag and 0,3% Ag. The explored temperatures are: 20°C and 80°C. Overall, the influence of silver resides in a slight increase in hardness. For the alloy Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,07%Ag, the microstructure is characterized by the formation of Ag5Cd8 compound during solidification.
Agglomeration of Ferroalloy Fines for use in Bulk Steelmaking ProcessesPRABHASH GOKARN
International Paper Published in STEEL TECH (ISSN 0976-4232) Vol:7 No:3 in April 2013
Ferroalloys are added as deoxidizing agents and additives to increase strength, elasticity and abrasion & corrosion resistance of steel. The preferred size of ferroalloy lumps for steel making is 10mm – 80 mm to optimize the operational efficiency. Ferroalloy lumps are produced by manual breaking of casted alloy cakes which generates 5-10% fines which cannot be used in bulk steel making process (like the commonly used LD process) because of handing and operational difficulties. Therefore, we at Tata Steel developed an agglomeration process for ferroalloy fines and used the briquettes thus produced for making steel. The developed process described in the paper is an economic, environment friendly and efficient way to utilize the ferroalloy fines in steel making.
Computational fluid dynamic simulations of solidification for enhancing speed...Rautomead Limited
In this research experiment computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models were constructed, within Ansys Fluent TM v.R1, to investigate phenomena occurring during the Vertically Upwards Continuous Casting (VUCC) of 8 mm diameter, oxygen free copper (OFCu) for alterations to the casting speed. The simulated influence of heat transported over a 0.1 mm air gap formed within the casting die was investigated and a value for the die wall heat transfer coefficient (hc) of (9.0 ± 0.2) 104 W/m2K, was extracted. Using this value for hc, simulations of the entire casting crucible and die were made for casting speed settings: pushback motion at 0.06 m/s, average; dwell motion (pause) at 0.05 m/s, average; and continuous motions at 0.022 m/s, 0.015 m/s and 0.008 m/s; and were validated against literature values for measured thermal distribution within the casting die. The fastest casting speed for 8 mmOFCu was investigated and a trend between simulated solidification front and measured grain growth direction was identified, highlighting,
the casting motions pushback and dwell yield improved casting conditions. Fluid flow rate was investigated within the casting crucible and showed a small influence on casting due to natural convection relative to flow within the die, 0.001 ± 0.0005 m/s compared with 0.1 ± 0.01 m/s for pushback casting, respectively.
Examination of anti-bacterial properties of Cu and Cu alloys and potential ap...Rautomead Limited
Report:-
Copper has been utilised throughout early human existence as a disinfectant used to clean
wounds and prevent infection. However, following the birth of antibiotics and
pharmaceutical drugs, the use of copper as an antimicrobial material severely declined.
Copper as an antimicrobial surface agent is now beginning to re-emerge in medical
institutions due to the rise of viruses and drug resistant bacteria, known as “superbugs”,
over the past century.
Yet, many institutions are hesitant on the reimplementation of copper as a surface agent.
This project aims to demonstrate the antimicrobial effectiveness of copper and its alloys
against an E. Coli O157:H7 strain as well as displaying the potential applications that an
antimicrobial copper surface agent can be applied to. Henceforth, the purpose of this
project is to formulate a systematic literature review, whereby the results from other
research papers will be compared and adopted into a novel concept of attempting to track
bacterial transmission through the use of a video-based monitoring system.
Examination of anti-bacterial properties of Cu and Cu alloys and potential ap...Rautomead Limited
Presentation:-
Copper has been utilised throughout early human existence as a disinfectant used to clean
wounds and prevent infection. However, following the birth of antibiotics and
pharmaceutical drugs, the use of copper as an antimicrobial material severely declined.
Copper as an antimicrobial surface agent is now beginning to re-emerge in medical
institutions due to the rise of viruses and drug resistant bacteria, known as “superbugs”,
over the past century.
Yet, many institutions are hesitant on the reimplementation of copper as a surface agent.
This project aims to demonstrate the antimicrobial effectiveness of copper and its alloys
against an E. Coli O157:H7 strain as well as displaying the potential applications that an
antimicrobial copper surface agent can be applied to. Henceforth, the purpose of this
project is to formulate a systematic literature review, whereby the results from other
research papers will be compared and adopted into a novel concept of attempting to track
bacterial transmission through the use of a video-based monitoring system.
Continuous Casting of Dilute Copper Alloys for Drawing to Wire in Specialist ...Rautomead Limited
Presentation given by Sir Micahel Nairn, Chairman Rautomead Limted, at Interwire 2019.
Abstract
Many modern industrial applications of copper-based conductor wires call not only for high electrical conductivity, but also for other matching physical properties, including high tensile strength, high softening temperatures, creep resistance, abrasion resistance and corrosion resistance, while maintaining also good ductility.
The paper shows examples of dilute copper alloys offering these properties and techniques and equipment which have been developed by Rautomead for reliable, continuous production to narrow chemical tolerances.
To enable the processing of new complex high performance alloys by improving ...Rautomead Limited
PHD Thesis for Ehsaan-Reza Bagherian
Summary
The analysis in this PhD thesis illustrated that the metallurgical and mechanical properties of components mainly produced by continuous casting are acceptable, and that this method could be a replacement production method for materials such as lead alloys and various copper alloy rod, e.g. CuMg and CuAg.. However, in the case of Deoxidized High Phosphorus (DHP) copper tubes, the performance of the as-cast material was significantly lower than that of from extrusion or planetary rolling process.
RAUTOMEAD TECHNOLOGY FOR CONTINUOUS CASTING OF OXYGEN-FREE COPPER AND DILUTE...Rautomead Limited
Paper by Sir Michael Nairn, Chairman of Rautomead Limited, Dundee, U.K.
presented at the Global Continuous Casting Forum, during the Interwire 2015 Trade Exposition, being held in Atlanta, Georgia, USA
organised by WAI
27 – 30 April 2015
Rautomead technology for continuous casting of oxygen free copper, copper-mag...Rautomead Limited
Rautomead Technology for Continuous Casting of Oxygen-free Copper, Copper-magnesium and Copper Conductor Alloys
We offer copper continuous casting technology and a range of copper wire and cable continuous casting machines.
The copper rod continuous casting machines are specifically designed for the processing of electrolytically-refined grade 'A' copper feedstock to produce 8.0mm diameter wire rods. They may be configured to produce rod up to 22.0mm diameter if required. The machines are intended to be operated for long periods of uninterrupted production of continuous cast copper wire rod.
RS machines are configured as integrated melting, holding and casting units, featuring graphite crucibles, protected in an inert gas atmosphere with high intensity graphite resistance heating.
RDG machines feature large Induction furnace technology. Machines are either single furnace integrated melting and casting or dual furnace with cathode melter feeding a holding furnace, depending on production output.
continuous casting machines for copper wire & cable operating costs
Rautomead have paid great attention to minimising the cost of operating the machine. Furnaces are totally enclosed and built up using high performance insulations to achieve minimum economic heat loss. Casting dies are inexpensive and may be changed individually
RS 3000 CuMg machine with graphite crucible technology is ideally suited for production of high quality copper magnesium alloy wire rod.
The graphite crucible removes oxygen from cathode feedstock which minimises losses of the magnesium alloying element.
Technology available for high magnesium content (0.4 – 0.6% Mg) alloy rod for use in the manufacture of overhead contact wires and cables for high speed trains, also for low magnesium content (0.1 -0.2% Mg) alloy rod for use in the manufacture of small diameter automotive data communication cables.
Rautomead technology is being used by suppliers of CuMg catenary contact wires on European High Speed train lines.
The massive construction project in progress in China to build 15,000 – 20,000km of new high speed train track features CuMg contact wires made from rods produced on Rautomead technology installed at cable factories around China.
RAUTOMEAD TECHNOLOGY FOR CONTINUOUS CASTING OF OXYGEN-FREE COPPER, COPPER-MA...Rautomead Limited
Rautomead Chairman, Sir Michael Nairn, presented a paper at the ICDC seminar in Mumbai on 30 November 2014. Sir Michael talked about “Rautomead Technology for Continuous Casting of Oxygen Free Copper, Copper Magnesium & Other Copper Conductor Alloys” and reflected on the development and evolution of Rautomead continuous casting technology during its 35 year history.
BWE Ltd, formerly Babcock Wire Equipment Ltd, has operated from its Ashford headquarters in the Southeast of England since 1969, when the company first produced cold welding machines. Conform™ machines have been manufactured since 1976 when they were initially used for extruding round wire. Continuous development aimed at extending the capabilities of the Conform process led to an
increasing number of applications including magnet wire, electrical conductors, refrigeration tube and ultimately, in 1984, the introduction of the Conklad™ process for aluminium clad steel wire and CATV and fibre optic cables.
billet, rod, or tube are continuous cast, defined
as the continuous solidification and withdrawal
of product from an open-ended shaping mold.
Methods include both vertical and horizontal
casting, depending on product size, shape, and
volume. Casting vertically has certain inherent
technical advantages. The symmetry of cooling
promotes a uniform and predictable solidification
growth pattern and uniform axial loading
on the freshly solidified shell as it is withdrawn
from the mold. In tube or hollow section casting,
the vertical process has particular merit.
The disadvantages of vertical casting are
mostly logistic: difficulty in handling long
lengths of section; cut-off can be more difficult
to engineer and control; and it is generally a
semicontinuous operation. Horizontal casting
requires lower capital investment, is compatible
with lower production rates, and is a continuous
operation.
This article briefly reviews the history and
methods of copper alloy continuous casting;
the information is drawn from the very detailed
and extensive coverage of the subject in Ref 1
and the numerous publications of equipment
supply companies such as Rautomead, SMS
Meer, and so on
On first reading, it might seem strange that Rautomead, a leading company specialising in continuous casting technology, should publish a Practical Guide on wire drawing practice in the copper wire and cable industry.
Since 1994, Rautomead has supplied over fifty oxygen-free copper (Cu-OF) rod casting machines to companies all over the world, the majority of whose previous experience had been exclusively in using only tough pitch copper (Cu-ETP) rod. By its nature, the behaviour of Cu-OF in the initial
stages of rod breakdown from 8mm as-cast rod is a little different from Cu-ETP. Minor changes to die drafts in older rod breakdown machines are recommended to achieve greater area reductions than may have been used previously.
Rautomead is fortunate to have David Bluck as a member of the company’s technical staff.
David has many years previous experience of technical management in the wire drawing
industry and has been able to assist Rautomead customers both in the introduction of Cu-OF rod into
their existing wire drawing lines and more generally in optimising performance of their wire drawing operations.
This Practical Guide is designed to encapsulate the most common issues Rautomead has encountered in copper wire drawing, to classify the types of faults occurring and to offer practical guidelines as to how these should be overcome.
The information in this advisory paper is given in good faith and with the objective of providing practical assistance. It is intended to supplement the place of technical information which may be provided for their equipment by wire drawing equipment manufacturers.
Sir Michael Nairn
Chairman
Rautomead Limited
Rautomead Limited Newsletter Issue 12 continuouscasting.com
For over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design and manufacture of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries worldwide.
Rautomead plants are being successfully applied to production of oxygen-free copper, a wide range of copper-based alloys, precious metals and zinc. Forms include wire rod, straight length bars, flats and hollow sections. According to material and section, the casting process selected may be vertical upwards, vertical downwards or horizontal. The machines may be used either as integrated melting, holding and casting machines, or may be arranged to be fed with pre-alloyed molten metal.
The Rautomead Continuous Casting System is based on electric resistance heating of its furnaces, with graphite containment crucibles, graphite heating elements and casting dies. This technology is particularly suited for production of high purity, high quality oxygen-free copper and copper alloy wire rods (copper silver, copper magnesium, copper tin).
The upward casting equipment may be used to manufacture rods of all diameters between 8.0mm and 30mm diameter and is suitable feedstock for wire drawing and continuous rotary extrusion processes. End use applications include: superfine wire, automotive wires, contact wire and trolley wires for high speed trains, data communication cables, CTC and transformer strips as well as enamelled wires.
Rautomead’s R&D facility at the factory in Dundee (casting equipment, technicians, design and operational experience) is available to companies who wish to commission experimental and research work to develop technology and tooling for the manufacture and processing of new alloys and materials. Rautomead’s partnership with the University of Dundee provides access to sophisticated laboratory equipment as well as support with analytical evaluation and academic contributions to the R&D effort
Rautomead Newsletter issue 11 pink
continuouscasting.com
For over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design and manufacture of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries worldwide.
Rautomead plants are being successfully applied to production of oxygen-free copper, a wide range of copper-based alloys, precious metals and zinc. Forms include wire rod, straight length bars, flats and hollow sections. According to material and section, the casting process selected may be vertical upwards, vertical downwards or horizontal. The machines may be used either as integrated melting, holding and casting machines, or may be arranged to be fed with pre-alloyed molten metal.
The Rautomead Continuous Casting System is based on electric resistance heating of its furnaces, with graphite containment crucibles, graphite heating elements and casting dies. This technology is particularly suited for production of high purity, high quality oxygen-free copper and copper alloy wire rods (copper silver, copper magnesium, copper tin).
The upward casting equipment may be used to manufacture rods of all diameters between 8.0mm and 30mm diameter and is suitable feedstock for wire drawing and continuous rotary extrusion processes. End use applications include: superfine wire, automotive wires, contact wire and trolley wires for high speed trains, data communication cables, CTC and transformer strips as well as enamelled wires.
Rautomead’s R&D facility at the factory in Dundee (casting equipment, technicians, design and operational experience) is available to companies who wish to commission experimental and research work to develop technology and tooling for the manufacture and processing of new alloys and materials. Rautomead’s partnership with the University of Dundee provides access to sophisticated laboratory equipment as well as support with analytical evaluation and academic contributions to the R&D effort
Rautomead Newsletter issue 03
continuouscasting.com
For over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design and manufacture of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries worldwide.
Rautomead plants are being successfully applied to production of oxygen-free copper, a wide range of copper-based alloys, precious metals and zinc. Forms include wire rod, straight length bars, flats and hollow sections. According to material and section, the casting process selected may be vertical upwards, vertical downwards or horizontal. The machines may be used either as integrated melting, holding and casting machines, or may be arranged to be fed with pre-alloyed molten metal.
The Rautomead Continuous Casting System is based on electric resistance heating of its furnaces, with graphite containment crucibles, graphite heating elements and casting dies. This technology is particularly suited for production of high purity, high quality oxygen-free copper and copper alloy wire rods (copper silver, copper magnesium, copper tin).
The upward casting equipment may be used to manufacture rods of all diameters between 8.0mm and 30mm diameter and is suitable feedstock for wire drawing and continuous rotary extrusion processes. End use applications include: superfine wire, automotive wires, contact wire and trolley wires for high speed trains, data communication cables, CTC and transformer strips as well as enamelled wires.
Rautomead’s R&D facility at the factory in Dundee (casting equipment, technicians, design and operational experience) is available to companies who wish to commission experimental and research work to develop technology and tooling for the manufacture and processing of new alloys and materials. Rautomead’s partnership with the University of Dundee provides access to sophisticated laboratory equipment as well as support with analytical evaluation and academic contributions to the R&D effort
Rautomead Newsletter issue 01
continuouscasting.com
For over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design and manufacture of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries worldwide.
Rautomead plants are being successfully applied to production of oxygen-free copper, a wide range of copper-based alloys, precious metals and zinc. Forms include wire rod, straight length bars, flats and hollow sections. According to material and section, the casting process selected may be vertical upwards, vertical downwards or horizontal. The machines may be used either as integrated melting, holding and casting machines, or may be arranged to be fed with pre-alloyed molten metal.
The Rautomead Continuous Casting System is based on electric resistance heating of its furnaces, with graphite containment crucibles, graphite heating elements and casting dies. This technology is particularly suited for production of high purity, high quality oxygen-free copper and copper alloy wire rods (copper silver, copper magnesium, copper tin).
The upward casting equipment may be used to manufacture rods of all diameters between 8.0mm and 30mm diameter and is suitable feedstock for wire drawing and continuous rotary extrusion processes. End use applications include: superfine wire, automotive wires, contact wire and trolley wires for high speed trains, data communication cables, CTC and transformer strips as well as enamelled wires.
Rautomead’s R&D facility at the factory in Dundee (casting equipment, technicians, design and operational experience) is available to companies who wish to commission experimental and research work to develop technology and tooling for the manufacture and processing of new alloys and materials. Rautomead’s partnership with the University of Dundee provides access to sophisticated laboratory equipment as well as support with analytical evaluation and academic contributions to the R&D effort
Our precious metals continuous casting machines have graphite crucible and resistance heating technology for high purity high quality continuous cast material. Machines may be used as batch casting machines or continuous casting, they may be feed with either liquid metal, alloyed grain or virgin metals depending on production quantity and cast section.
A wide range of machine sizes and specifications are available for precious metals processing, including gold and silver based alloys for:
jewellery, as sheet, rod and tube
electronics industry as lead frame alloys and contact materials
dental industry
minting industry, as bullion coinage strip
Bonding wire rod, 99.999 purity gold
Examples of finished final products which can be manufactured using these continuous casting machines for precious metals include:
Gold and silver coins
Medals
Gold bonding wire
Jewellery, silver picture frames, silver cutlery
Dental alloys
Electronic lead frame material
Sputtering targets for glass coating
Silver flutes
For over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design and manufacture of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries worldwide.
Rautomead plants are being successfully applied to production of oxygen-free copper, a wide range of copper-based alloys, precious metals and zinc. Forms include wire rod, straight length bars, flats and hollow sections. According to material and section, the casting process selected may be vertical upwards, vertical downwards or horizontal. The machines may be used either as integrated melting, holding and casting machines, or may be arranged to be fed with pre-alloyed molten metal.
The Rautomead Continuous Casting System is based on electric resistance heating of its furnaces, with graphite containment crucibles, graphite heating elements and casting dies. This technology is particularly suited for production of high purity, high quality oxygen-free copper and copper alloy wire rods (copper silver, copper magnesium, copper tin).
The upward casting equipment may be used to manufacture rods of all diameters between 8.0mm and 30mm diameter and is suitable feedstock for wire drawing and continuous rotary extrusion processes. End use applications include: superfine wire, automotive wires, contact wire and trolley wires for high speed trains, data communication cables, CTC and transformer strips as well as enamelled wires.
Rautomead’s R&D facility at the factory in Dundee (casting equipment, technicians, design and operational experience) is available to companies who wish to commission experimental and research work to develop technology and tooling for the manufacture and processing of new alloys and materials. Rautomead’s partnership with the University of Dundee provides access to sophisticated laboratory equipment as well as support with analytical evaluation and academic contributions to the R&D effort.
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RAUTOMEAD TECHNOLOGY FOR UPWARDS CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER ALLOYSRautomead Limited
RAUTOMEAD TECHNOLOGY FOR UPWARDS CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER ALLOYS
Paper given by Brain Frame, MD Rautomead at teh IWCC technical Seminar, Santiago, Chile, March 2013
Rautomead - The Manufacture of Brass Rod for Machining and Forging ApplicationsRautomead Limited
Rautomead Limited paper describing the process and equipment to manufacture around 150 tonnes per month, using either virgin metals or scrap brass feedstock.
Rautomead Limited are UK-based specialists in continuous casting of non-ferrous metals and construction of continuous casting equipment for copper, copper alloys, gold and silver, dental alloys and feed rod for Conform machines.
For a period of over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design, manufacture and sale of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries around the world.
Rautomead promote Advanced Metals Technology Collaboration for research and development of new processing technology for non ferrous metals
Rautomead Limited are UK-based specialists in continuous casting of non-ferrous metals and construction of continuous casting equipment for copper, copper alloys, gold and silver, dental alloys and feed rod for Conform machines.
For a period of over 30 years Rautomead Limited has specialised in the design, manufacture and sale of continuous casting equipment for non-ferrous metals and alloys. There are now more than 300 Rautomead machines in operation in over 45 different countries around the world.
Rautomead promote Advanced Metals Technology Collaboration for research and development of new processing technology for non ferrous metals
www.rautomead.co.uk
sales@rautomead.co.uk
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
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Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
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Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
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EFFECT OF ANTIMONY ADDITION RELATIVE TO MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS CAST LEAD ALLOY
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EFFECT OF ANTIMONY ADDITION RELATIVE TO MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS CAST LEAD ALLOY
Ehsaan-Reza BAGHERIANa
, Yongchang FAN b
, Mervyn COOPERb
, Brian FRAMEb
, Amin
Abdolvanda
a School of Science & Engineering, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom,
e.bagherian@dundee.ac.uk, y.fan@dundee.ac.uk, A.Abdolvand@dundee.ac.uk
b Rautomead Ltd, DD2 4UH Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
Mervyn.Cooper@rautomead.com, Brian.Frame@rautomead.com
Abstract
It is well documented that the addition of antimony in pure lead increases tensile strength and reduced
elongation. The goal of the present work is to identify the cause of these phenomena by investigation of the
effects of the addition of Sb (1.25%) on the structure of pure continuously cast lead and lead alloy rods. The
microstructure and morphology of both pure lead and lead 1.25% antimony were examined by digital optical
microscope and scanning electron microscope respectively. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX)
was used to identify alloying elements. The results showed that the effect of additions of antimony on
mechanical properties of lead-antimony alloys is mainly due to the solid solubility of the antimony element.
Homogenized distribution of the antimony results in a decrease in the grain size of the pure lead. These
smaller grains mean higher strength so long as there is a homogeneous grain structure
Keywords: Continuous Casting, Lead and Lead-Antimony alloy, Oscillation Mark, Metallography, SEM/EDX
1. INTRODUCTION
PbSb alloys are frequently used in numerous industrial applications, such as cable sheaths, anti-friction
bearings, solder and battery grids. This is due to their beneficial characteristics, such as the precipitation
hardening effect, as well as their microstructural and mechanical properties [1, 2, and 3]. Pb-Sb alloys can
be produced by continuous and gravity casting processes [4] or Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) [5].
The physical and mechanical properties of lead-antimony will depend on the chemical composition of the
alloy [6]. Previous works has shown that, compared with other metals, lead has much lower strength. For
example, the tensile strength of mild steel is about 15 times stronger; copper 10 times stronger; and
aluminum about 6 times stronger than pure lead. [6]. Thus pure lead is unsuitable for many applications that
require even significant strength. Small alloying additions significantly increase its strength. Bismuth, Tin and
Antimony are the most common alloying elements of lead. For examples, addition of 20% Bi and 5% Sn can
increase the strength of lead [7]. The addition of antimony in lead can enhance on mechanical properties but
higher antimony is avoided because of negative impact on electrochemical properties. So, Lead-antimony
alloys for battery grids in automotive applications are produced only 1-3% Sb. [8, 9]. The main goal of this
study has been to contribute to a better understanding of the effect alloying elements have on the physical
and mechanical properties of continuously cast lead alloys. The experiments were conducted in an attempt
to understand the effect of Sb addition relative to microstructure and mechanical properties of continuous
lead alloy.
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2. EXPERIMENT
2.1 MATERIAL PREPARATION AND CASTING PROCEDURE
The trials were carried out on the model RS080 vertically upwards-continuous casting machine at
Rautomead’s premises in Dundee, UK. This report covers sample A, which produced 8 mm diameter rod in
soft lead, and sample B, which produced 8 mm rod in lead 1.25% antimony. The chemical composition of the
cast alloy was then tested using an AMETEK spectrometer. Tensile test, metallography and SEM/EDX were
used to investigate the relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties of continuous
casting fabricated Pb and Pb-Sb rod. The representative samples analyzed in this work and their
corresponding parameters are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 The lead samples tested in this research and their casting servo parameters
Sample Alloy Pull
Distance
(mm)
Pull
Dwell
(Sec)
Acceleration
(Sec)
Deceleration
(Sec)
Speed
(mm/min)
A Pb 20 0.027 0.025 0.025 700
B Pb1.25%Sb 20 0.027 0.025 0.025 700
2.2 TENSILE TESTING
To evaluate the mechanical properties of samples, the uniaxial tensile test is used. The test specimens were
prepared according to ASTM E8 / E8M - 13a (Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic
Materials) and for each cast, three samples were selected and an average taken [10].
2.3 METALLOGRAPHY
Samples for microstructural observations were cut with a clean sharp hacksaw. Sectioning of the test sample
was performed carefully to avoid destroying the structure of the material. After the sample is sectioned to a
convenient size, samples were then ground by using alumina grinding paper grit 220 to 1200 and polished ,
beginning with 6 micron and then subsequently using 3, 1 and ¼ micron. the polished samples were etched
according to the ASTM E407-07 (Standard Practice for Micro-Etching Metals and Alloys),in a solution of
75ml glacial acetic acid (C2H4O2), 25ml of 30% concentrated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and 15ml glycerol
(C3H8O3) for 10-30 min (depending on the depth of the distributed layer). Then samples were then dried
and cleaned with 70% concentrated nitric acid to appear the crystals [11,12].
2.4 SEM/EDX
In order to observe the morphology of lead-antimony, the etched samples were put onto the stage/holder,
mounted on carbon sticks, and then placed into the vacuum chamber for examination by the Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) as well as Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) – Model the JEOL
JSM7400F.
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 TENSILE TESTING
Small amount of alloying elements are often added to metals to improve their physical and mechanical
properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between the microstructure and
mechanical properties of continuous cast lead alloy. In this work, mechanical properties were monitored by
tensile test. Table 2 and Figure 1, show the average elongation and tensile strength of the continuous cast
Pb and Pb1.25%Sb rod samples respectively. It can be seen that sample A (pure Pb) has higher elongation
and lower tensile strength compared to the sample B (Pb1.25%Sb). The addition of antimony increase the
tensile strength of lead casting and, on the other hand, decrease the elongation percentage of lead casting
as would be expected for an alloying elements. Lead unit cell structures are described as Face Centered
Cubic (FCC) and antimony is Body Centered Cubic (BCC). Dislocations in BCC structure like antimony are
no longer mobile making it brittle. However, dislocations in FCC alloys like lead can still move very quickly
making it ductile. Figure 2, show the photographs of fracture surfaces. Results showed that the fracture of
Lead was ductile with necking. The pb1.25%Sb is still ductile, just less so than the pure Pb [13].
Table 2 Tensile test and elongation percentage results
Sample Sample No Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Average
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Initial
Length
(mm)
Final
Length
(mm)
Elongation
Percentage
(%)
Average
Elongation
Percentage
(%)
A (Lead)
1 17
17
100 143 43
41.332 18 100 139 39
3 16 100 142 42
B (Lead-
Antimony)
1 30
29.66
100 112 12 14.33
2 29 100 113 13
3 30 100 118 18
Fig. 1 Comparison tensile strength and elongation percentage of Pb and Pb1.25%Sb
(a) Fracture of Pb (b) Fracture of Pb1.25%Sb
Fig. 2 Fracture of Pb and Pb1.25%Sb
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3.2 MICROSTRUCTURE EVALUATION AND AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE READING (PLANIMETRIC
METHOD ASTM E-112)
Fig.3 (a) shows the microstructure of the pure lead and Fig.3 (b) shows the grain structure of the alloy having
lead 1.25% antimony continuous cast rod. These Figures shows clearly the precipitate distribution of the Pb-
Sb alloy after adding antimony. As can be seen, in the antinomy added sample, there are many small dark
spots with the reduced lead crystal grains. These dark spots are identified as a precipitated antinomy rich
particles. As will be demonstrated in the following section, in the high magnifications SEM image
observations, the dispersion of antimony rich particles within the Pb grains can be seen clearly. The grain
sizes of the homogenised, cast lead-antimony in Fig. 3 showed a strong influence of the alloy element
additions on grain size, since the casting conditions were the same for both alloys. Additional alloying
elements typically produce a fine and homogenize distribution of precipitation. Because of finer grain, there
are more space precipitation. Thus, Pb1.25%Sb exhibits higher tensile strength than pure lead. Sb additions
in the Pb resulted in grain refinement. A possible grain refinement caused by increasing heating as melting
temperature of pure lead was about 327°C and melting temperature of the Pb-Sb alloy was 380°C. So the
grains within the structure recrystallize into many fine grains. This grain growth is also because the diffusion
of the solute occurs. In general speaking, the smaller/finer grains, have the larger area of grain boundaries
that inhibits dislocation motion and reducing the grain size therefore increases the available nucleation
sites.Thus, grain-size reduction typically expands toughness due to the dislocations interacting with the grain
boundary as in a larger grain there are more dislocations within the grain.There is a much greater chance for
a dislocation to be stopped at a grain boundary in the smaller grain [13].
(a) Grain structure of Pb (b) Grain structure of Pb1.25%Sb
Fig. 3. Grain structure of Pb and Pb1.25%Sb
The evaluation of grain size and microstructure was determined through Planimetric procedure. To perform
this technique, a proper magnification was selected. A circle was drawn on the image (Fig.4), the grains that
were located entirely inside the circle were counted and then the grains intercepting the circle were counted
separately and the average grain size was calculated by using the planimetric procedure. Fig.4, shows the
analysis and quantification of grain size of lead and lead1.25%antimony by Jeffries planimetric method
[14,15].
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(a) Average grain size measurement of Pb (b) Average grain size measurement of Pb1.25%Sb
Fig. 4. Average grain size measurement of Pb and Pb1.25%Sb
Table 3 shows the average grain size of these two samples as discussed above which confirmed the
average grain size of lead antimony sample is smaller.
Table 3. comparison average grain size of cast no; 49H and 52B
Sample Alloy Average Grain Size (mm2) The average grain per square
millimeter
A Pb 0.0053 188
B Pb1.25%Sb 0.0045 223
3.2.1 LEAD ANTIMONY PHASE DIAGRAM
According to the phase diagram of PbSb (Figure 5), in a lead containing about 0.44 wt% Sb the antimony is
not dissolved until the temperature exceeds 100°C. It will remain undissolved at temperatures up to and
somewhat above 100°C. Then, the grain growth and it can increase in grain size. The phase diagram of
PbSb, show that Sb forms a eutectic phase with Pb. Lead-Antimony has a low-melting point binary eutectic
alloy system. When a liquid of eutectic composition solidifies, a eutectic microstructure is formed with a layer
of α and β phases. Sb rich grains are being formed when the Sb concentration in PbSb alloy exceeds the
solubility limit, which is only 0.44 wt. % at 100°C. It is a result of segregation of Sb from the alloy at the
mentioned state, here sample 52B cast at 382°C with quantity of 1.25 wt. %. So most Sb dissolves in Pb and
Sb-rich grains segregate from the PbSb solid solution [16].
Fig. 5. Phase diagram of Pb Pb (weight percent and atomic percent
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3.3 SEM IMAGE OBSERVATION AND EDX ANALYSIS
Figure 6 shows the electron image (an enlarged view) of the both pure lead and lead-antimony alloy in the
as-cast condition, whereas presents the similar image of the optical microscope. The darker regions in which
are seen in more detail around the precipitates in the second Figure is antimony rich regions, which is not
observed in the as-cast pure lead structure. It can be clearly seen that the bright grey phase is lead.
(a) SEM of pure lead (b) EDX of pure lead
(a) SEM of Pb1.25%Sb (b) EDX Pb1.25%Sb
(a) SEM of Pb1.25%Sb – selected point (b) EDX of Pb1.25%Sb – selected point
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SEM of Pb1.25%Sb – selected point - matrix (b) EDX of Pb1.25%Sb – selected point - matrix
Fig. 6. SEM and EDX of pure lead
Further investigations by EDX revealed that the darker spots in the above Figure is rich of antimony element
while the matrix is lead. The elemental analysis were carried out in different representative area. The
difference on atomic number between Pb and Sb gives a sharp contrast between the Pb matrix and solid
solution of Sb in SEM images. According to the phase diagram Pb-Sb system and EDS results, the dark spot
corresponds to the antimony solid solution with the composition of 1.25% and the bright matrix phase is
corresponds the lead. Fig. 6 shows the existence of antimony in the bright grey phase, which illustrates the
precipitation of antimony in matrix of lead.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In this study, the influence of an alloying element on the microstructure and mechanical properties of lead
1.25% antimony alloys were investigated. From the experimental results and their analysis, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1- The addition of antimony as an alloying elements improve the tensile strength of the continuous cast
lead alloy. Results showed that the tensile strength of the pure lead was higher as the amount of
antimony increased, making tensile strength increases from 17MPa to 29MPa when 1.25 wt% Sb
was added to the pure lead. So, lead containing 1.25% antimony has twice the tensile strength of
pure lead. This improvement was a consequence of the observed Pb precipitated antinomy rich
particles in the microstructure of lead using OM, SEM-EDX tools.
2- The addition of antimony results in a decreases in the elongation percentage. It was found that the
addition of 1.25% antimony into the pure lead reduces its elongation from 41% to 14%.
3- The effect of addition of antimony on mechanical properties of lead-antimony alloys is mainly due to
the solid solubility of the antimony element.
4- The fracture of Lead was ductile with necking. The pb1.25%Sb is still ductile, but less so than the
pure Pb.
5- The average grain size analysis using jeffries planimetric method shows the grain size of the pure
lead alloy is reduced by adding the antimony. Grain-size reduction is mainly due to solid-
solution alloying.
6- As for future work, this research can be extended by investigation into the influence of alloying
elements on electrical conductivity (EC) of continuous cast lead alloy.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research project would not have been possible without the support of Rautomead Ltd
engineers. The authors would like to thank to Mr. Elliott Boyle and Mr. Gavin Marnie. Their guidance
helped us throughout this research. The authors would like to thank Sir Michael Nairn, Chairman
of Rautomead, for his valuable comments and suggestions to improve the quality of the paper.
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[6] The International Lead Association, CHAPTER 2, PROPERTIES OF LEAD
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[8] Werner Martienssen, Hans Warlimont, Springer Handbook of Condensed Matter and Materials Data, 2005
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[11] ASTM, Standard Practice for Microetching Metals and Alloys, ASTM E407 - 07(2015)
[12] J. R. Vilella, Polishing and Etching Lead, Tin, and Some of Their Alloys for Microscopic Examination, Journal of
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Sons, Inc. (2003)
[14] ASTM, Standard Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size, E 112-10
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