The return of equilibrium of structure state of supersaturated solid solutions of lead-cadmium-Bismuth-silver alloys has been studied by different techniques: hardness, micro-hardness, microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Two structural states were considered: raw casting alloy and rehomogenized alloy. We studied alloys Pb2%Cd1%Bi and Pb3,2%Cd2%Bi to which we added the following concentrations by weight of silver to elaborate our alloys: 0,07% Ag, 0,15% Ag, 0, 2% Ag and 0,3% Ag. The explored temperatures are: 20°C and 80°C. Overall, the influence of silver resides in a slight increase in hardness. For the alloy Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,07%Ag, the microstructure is characterized by the formation of Ag5Cd8 compound during solidification.
Corrosion Inhibition of Carbon Steel In Sulfuric Acid by Sodium CaprylateIJERA Editor
The interaction of a sodium salt of octanoic acid, sodium caprylate (SC), with a carbon steel (CS) surface was
investigated, using range of experimental techniques. It was shown that SC acts as a good CS general corrosion
inhibitor, yielding a maximum corrosion inhibition efficiency of 77%. This high inhibition efficiency is
maintained even at higher temperatures. It was determined that SC inhibits both partial corrosion reactions, and
can thus be considered to be a mixed-type inhibitor. The adsorption of SC on the CS surface was described by
the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. It was found that this process is spontaneous, irreversible and driven by the
entropy gain. The CS surface morphology was studied by SEM and it was demonstrated that SC is a very
effective general corrosion inhibitor of CS. This also was confirmed by contact angle measurements which
showed that the CS surface became more hydrophobic when the SC was added to the solution.
Corrosion Inhibition of Carbon Steel In Sulfuric Acid by Sodium CaprylateIJERA Editor
The interaction of a sodium salt of octanoic acid, sodium caprylate (SC), with a carbon steel (CS) surface was
investigated, using range of experimental techniques. It was shown that SC acts as a good CS general corrosion
inhibitor, yielding a maximum corrosion inhibition efficiency of 77%. This high inhibition efficiency is
maintained even at higher temperatures. It was determined that SC inhibits both partial corrosion reactions, and
can thus be considered to be a mixed-type inhibitor. The adsorption of SC on the CS surface was described by
the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. It was found that this process is spontaneous, irreversible and driven by the
entropy gain. The CS surface morphology was studied by SEM and it was demonstrated that SC is a very
effective general corrosion inhibitor of CS. This also was confirmed by contact angle measurements which
showed that the CS surface became more hydrophobic when the SC was added to the solution.
Studies on Corrosion Characteristics of Carbon Steel Exposed to Na2CO3, Na2SO...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
Influence of phase transformation on the work hardening characteristics of Pb...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
The inhibition effect of hydralazine hydrochloride on corrosion of mild steel...Premier Publishers
The inhibition effect of the Hydralazine hydrochloride for mild steel corrosion in 1M HCl has been investigated. Polarization measurement indicates that the Hydralazine hydrochloride act as mixed-type inhibitor, which gives a maximum inhibition efficiency around 72 %. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to investigate the mechanism of corrosion inhibition gives around 76 % due to the formation of electrical double layer. Thermodynamic parameter such as ΔG0 ads value was obtained as -30.22 KJ/mol indications that inhibitor shows its inhibition effect due to the chemisorptions process. Scanning electron microscopic images gives a visual idea about the formation of the protective film on the mild steel surface to reduce the corrosion rate. So that the Hydralazine hydrochloride acts as an efficient mixed type corrosion inhibitor for mild steel corrosion in acid media.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Investigative studies on the inhibitive effects of Newbouldialaevis extracts ...researchinventy
The inhibitive effects ofNewbouldiaLaevis (NL) leaf extract and magnetic field on copper corrosion in 0.5M H2SO4 aqueous solution were investigated experimentally by gravimetric technique and theoretically using Quantum Chemical calculations. The results show that both NL and the magnetic field caused reduction in corrosion rate. The inhibition efficiency increased with concentration. The magnetic field caused greater increase in the inhibition efficiency. Temperature increase caused a decrease in inhibition efficiency. The activation energy is low and oscillates, possibly due to error factor from non-linearity of the Arrhenius plot. Among the tested isotherms, Langmuir has the highest correlation coefficient of 0.9963 and 0.7935 with and without magnet field respectively. The magnetic field increased the change in free energy, caused the reaction to become spontaneous, one mole of the inhibitor to replace 4 moles of water mole while reducing the number of monolayer of the inhibitor on the metal. The quantum chemical calculations performed on newbouldiaquinone and lapacholconstituents of NL showed that lapachol contributed more to the inhibition efficiency due its low binding energy, high dipole moment, chemical softness and fractional electron transfer. The magnetic field and temperature played opposite roles.
Influence of Polyacrylamide on Corrosion Resistance of Mild Steel Simulated C...IOSR Journals
Corrosion resistance of mild steel in simulated concrete pore solution (SCPS) Prepared in well water in
the absence and presence of polacrylamide (PAA) and Zn2+has been evaluated by weight loss method. It is observed
that when PAA is added the corrosion inhibition efficiency (IE) increases. As the concentration of PAA increases ,
inhibition efficiency also increases . Addition of Zn2+ improves of IE further. 50 ppm of PAA has 60% IE . 100 ppm
of PAA shows 75% IE. When 50 ppm of Zn2+is added to the above system , both system shows 80% and 90% IE. The
mechanistic aspects of corrosion inhibition have been investigated by polarization study and AC impedance
spectra. . Polaraization study suggests that the PAA-Zn2+ system functions as a mixed inhibitor system .AC
impedance reveal the presence of a protective film on the metal surface.
Preparation and Characterization of (Bi1.65Pb0.35 )2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+δ Superco...IJSRD
The (Bi1.65Pb0.35 )2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+δ type high temperature superconductor compounds have been synthesized by solid state reaction method and characterized by structural and superconducting properties. Four-probe resistivity confirmed the superconducting transition temperature of 102K.The X-ray diffraction patterns revealed tetragonal structure. The effects of modified sample preparation on structural, surface and superconducting properties are presented.
INHIBITION EFFECT OF GUAR GUM ON CORROSION OF STORAGE TANK FOR CRUDE OIL IN B...IAEME Publication
Corrosion is responsible for numerous damages mainly in the industrial scope.
The best way to fight this damage is prevention. One of the most well-known and
useful methods to avoid or mitigate destruction/degradation on the surface of metals is
a corrosion inhibitor. Low cost, environmentally friendly, and non-toxic are some of
the best features in the inhibitor, guar gum, used in this study. The study shows that
the potential of the metal is shifted positively when the concentration of the inhibitor is
increased. Low current density was also observed due to increasing the concentration
of the inhibitor. Therefore, a low corrosion rate means low current density and more
positive potential of the metal. Different concentrations of inhibitor are used and the
optimum concentration that showed a low corrosion rate is 2.5 g/L. The efficiency of
the optimum concentration is 65%. The result states that the guar gum is absorbed on
the surface of the metal and gives an unchanging chelate five-membered-ring with
ferrous cation Fe+2.
Studies on Corrosion Characteristics of Carbon Steel Exposed to Na2CO3, Na2SO...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
Influence of phase transformation on the work hardening characteristics of Pb...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
The inhibition effect of hydralazine hydrochloride on corrosion of mild steel...Premier Publishers
The inhibition effect of the Hydralazine hydrochloride for mild steel corrosion in 1M HCl has been investigated. Polarization measurement indicates that the Hydralazine hydrochloride act as mixed-type inhibitor, which gives a maximum inhibition efficiency around 72 %. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to investigate the mechanism of corrosion inhibition gives around 76 % due to the formation of electrical double layer. Thermodynamic parameter such as ΔG0 ads value was obtained as -30.22 KJ/mol indications that inhibitor shows its inhibition effect due to the chemisorptions process. Scanning electron microscopic images gives a visual idea about the formation of the protective film on the mild steel surface to reduce the corrosion rate. So that the Hydralazine hydrochloride acts as an efficient mixed type corrosion inhibitor for mild steel corrosion in acid media.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Investigative studies on the inhibitive effects of Newbouldialaevis extracts ...researchinventy
The inhibitive effects ofNewbouldiaLaevis (NL) leaf extract and magnetic field on copper corrosion in 0.5M H2SO4 aqueous solution were investigated experimentally by gravimetric technique and theoretically using Quantum Chemical calculations. The results show that both NL and the magnetic field caused reduction in corrosion rate. The inhibition efficiency increased with concentration. The magnetic field caused greater increase in the inhibition efficiency. Temperature increase caused a decrease in inhibition efficiency. The activation energy is low and oscillates, possibly due to error factor from non-linearity of the Arrhenius plot. Among the tested isotherms, Langmuir has the highest correlation coefficient of 0.9963 and 0.7935 with and without magnet field respectively. The magnetic field increased the change in free energy, caused the reaction to become spontaneous, one mole of the inhibitor to replace 4 moles of water mole while reducing the number of monolayer of the inhibitor on the metal. The quantum chemical calculations performed on newbouldiaquinone and lapacholconstituents of NL showed that lapachol contributed more to the inhibition efficiency due its low binding energy, high dipole moment, chemical softness and fractional electron transfer. The magnetic field and temperature played opposite roles.
Influence of Polyacrylamide on Corrosion Resistance of Mild Steel Simulated C...IOSR Journals
Corrosion resistance of mild steel in simulated concrete pore solution (SCPS) Prepared in well water in
the absence and presence of polacrylamide (PAA) and Zn2+has been evaluated by weight loss method. It is observed
that when PAA is added the corrosion inhibition efficiency (IE) increases. As the concentration of PAA increases ,
inhibition efficiency also increases . Addition of Zn2+ improves of IE further. 50 ppm of PAA has 60% IE . 100 ppm
of PAA shows 75% IE. When 50 ppm of Zn2+is added to the above system , both system shows 80% and 90% IE. The
mechanistic aspects of corrosion inhibition have been investigated by polarization study and AC impedance
spectra. . Polaraization study suggests that the PAA-Zn2+ system functions as a mixed inhibitor system .AC
impedance reveal the presence of a protective film on the metal surface.
Preparation and Characterization of (Bi1.65Pb0.35 )2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+δ Superco...IJSRD
The (Bi1.65Pb0.35 )2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+δ type high temperature superconductor compounds have been synthesized by solid state reaction method and characterized by structural and superconducting properties. Four-probe resistivity confirmed the superconducting transition temperature of 102K.The X-ray diffraction patterns revealed tetragonal structure. The effects of modified sample preparation on structural, surface and superconducting properties are presented.
INHIBITION EFFECT OF GUAR GUM ON CORROSION OF STORAGE TANK FOR CRUDE OIL IN B...IAEME Publication
Corrosion is responsible for numerous damages mainly in the industrial scope.
The best way to fight this damage is prevention. One of the most well-known and
useful methods to avoid or mitigate destruction/degradation on the surface of metals is
a corrosion inhibitor. Low cost, environmentally friendly, and non-toxic are some of
the best features in the inhibitor, guar gum, used in this study. The study shows that
the potential of the metal is shifted positively when the concentration of the inhibitor is
increased. Low current density was also observed due to increasing the concentration
of the inhibitor. Therefore, a low corrosion rate means low current density and more
positive potential of the metal. Different concentrations of inhibitor are used and the
optimum concentration that showed a low corrosion rate is 2.5 g/L. The efficiency of
the optimum concentration is 65%. The result states that the guar gum is absorbed on
the surface of the metal and gives an unchanging chelate five-membered-ring with
ferrous cation Fe+2.
Corrosion Inhibition of Carbon Steel In Sulfuric Acid by Sodium CaprylateIJERA Editor
The interaction of a sodium salt of octanoic acid, sodium caprylate (SC), with a carbon steel (CS) surface was
investigated, using range of experimental techniques. It was shown that SC acts as a good CS general corrosion
inhibitor, yielding a maximum corrosion inhibition efficiency of 77%. This high inhibition efficiency is
maintained even at higher temperatures. It was determined that SC inhibits both partial corrosion reactions, and
can thus be considered to be a mixed-type inhibitor. The adsorption of SC on the CS surface was described by
the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. It was found that this process is spontaneous, irreversible and driven by the
entropy gain. The CS surface morphology was studied by SEM and it was demonstrated that SC is a very
effective general corrosion inhibitor of CS. This also was confirmed by contact angle measurements which
showed that the CS surface became more hydrophobic when the SC was added to the solution.
EFFECT OF ANTIMONY ADDITION RELATIVE TO MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERT...Rautomead Limited
It is well documented that the addition of antimony in pure lead increases tensile strength and reduced elongation. The goal of the present work is to identify the cause of these phenomena by investigation of the effects of the addition of Sb (1.25%) on the structure of pure continuously cast lead and lead alloy rods. The microstructure and morphology of both pure lead and lead 1.25% antimony were examined by digital optical microscope and scanning electron microscope respectively. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) was used to identify alloying elements. The results showed that the effect of additions of antimony on mechanical properties of lead-antimony alloys is mainly due to the solid solubility of the antimony element. Homogenized distribution of the antimony results in a decrease in the grain size of the pure lead. These smaller grains mean higher strength so long as there is a homogeneous grain structure
Corrosion Inhibition of Carbon Steel in Chloride and Sulfate SolutionsIJERA Editor
Corrosion is a major problem in industry and in infrastructure; a huge sum of expenditure every year is spent on
preventing, retarding, and repairing its damages. This work studies the engineering of an inhibitor for carbon
steel metal used in the cooling systems containing high concentration of chloride and sulfate ions. For this
purpose, the synergy between the dichromate, molybdate and nitrite inhibitors is examined and optimized to the
best results. Moreover, care was taken that the proposed inhibitor is compliant with the environmental laws and
regulations.
Corrosion resistance performance of fly ash blended cement concreteseSAT Journals
Abstract Durability of reinforced concrete with respect to corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major aspects to be considered in the management of civil infrastructure systems. An accelerated laboratory test method developed at SERC where the concrete specimen containing rebar is subjected to polarization under a constant voltage in a sodium chloride solution. It is found that the current response with time follows that of a typical service life model indicating depassivation and corrosion propagation. Index terms- Materials, cement, super plasticizer, workability, compressive strength etc.
Corrosion resistance performance of fly ash blended cement concreteseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
An equiaxed, submicron grain size distribution was generated in an Al (0.1 wt.% Sc) alloy by
processing through equal channel angular pressing followed by a low temperature pre-
ageing heat treatment. The alloy was subsequently annealed for various times at 300, 350,
400 and 450° C for investigating the thermal stability of the deformation microstructure. It
was found that up to 400° C, the submicron grain structure coarsens slowly and uniformly by
a process of continuous recrystallization.
It is known that one of the major negative impacts of the corrosion of steel
structures is the reduction in geometry. The calculations of the load-bearing capacity
of the steel elements depend on the geometric characteristics. The theory confirms that
if the geometric characteristics decrease, the load-bearing capacity of the steel
elements will also decrease. We conducted an experiment using the S355JR
construction steel to determine how the geometry changes. We used electro-chemical
accelerated corrosion on which our steel test samples were subjected. We interrupted
the electrochemical corrosion process at some point in order to make the necessary
measurements regarding the change in geometric characteristics of the test samples.
Once we received the experimental data, we processed them using the stochastic
method. We also performed theoretical calculations using classical theory and
determined the theoretical load-ability (force, bending moment) of our test samples.
We have come to the conclusion that the change in geometric characteristics is nonlinear
and results in a slight decrease in the corrosion of the steel elements, but
significantly reduces the theoretical ultimate load-capacity due to corrosion and the
corresponding decrease in geometric characteristics
CW RADAR, FMCW RADAR, FMCW ALTIMETER, AND THEIR PARAMETERSveerababupersonal22
It consists of cw radar and fmcw radar ,range measurement,if amplifier and fmcw altimeterThe CW radar operates using continuous wave transmission, while the FMCW radar employs frequency-modulated continuous wave technology. Range measurement is a crucial aspect of radar systems, providing information about the distance to a target. The IF amplifier plays a key role in signal processing, amplifying intermediate frequency signals for further analysis. The FMCW altimeter utilizes frequency-modulated continuous wave technology to accurately measure altitude above a reference point.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
2. International Journal of Civil, Mechanical and Energy Science, 6(6)
Nov-Dec, 2020 | Available: http://ijcmes.com/
ISSN: 2455-5304
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijcmes.66.3 38
whose aging is done in two concurrent reactions: a
continuous precipitation and a discontinuous
transformation. On the other hand, the over-aging occurs by
a discontinuous magnification with precipitation of Cd
phase from fine precipitates in the same phase. The effect
of silver on the element hardening mechanisms PbCd alloys
results in a slight increase in hardness.
In order to further improve the mechanical and
electrochemical properties of PbCdBi alloys, we undertook
the study of the influence of minor additions of silver on the
hardening mechanisms of these alloys.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
1.1. Preparation of alloys
Pb-Ag binary system [8] has in the lead-rich side a much
reduced solubility domain compared to that of the Pb-Cd
systems. The system as shown in fig.1a has a eutectic at
304°C. The composition of the eutectic liquid is about 2.5
% by weight of silver. The solubility limit at the eutectic
temperature is 0.1 % by weight of Ag.
Note that until now, there is no ternary diagram Pb-Cd-Ag
or Pb-Bi-Ag in the literature. Fig.1b represents the phase
diagram of Ag-Cd system [9]. According to the fields of Cd
concentrations and temperature, more solid phases may be
formed: (Ag), β, β ', ξ, γ, γ', and ɛ (Cd).
The binary system Bi-Ag [10] as is shown in fig.1c has a
eutectic at 265.6°C. The composition of the eutectic liquid
is about 2.5 % by weight of silver, while the maximum
solubility of the bismuth in silver is 1.6 % by weight of
silver.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 1. a) Pb-Ag phase diagram b) Ag-Cd phase diagram
c) Ag-Bi phase diagram
To study the structural-cast alloys, the elements taken in
the proper proportions, are introduced into a silica ampoule
of 8 mm in diameter, sealed under high vacuum, the mixture
is heated to 500 °C. After melting and cooling total, the tube
is quenched with water. The samples were examined
directly or may be stored in liquid nitrogen. For
rehomogenization, the ingot obtained is cut into several
pieces that are then polished by abrasion. Samples are
introduced into silica ampoules sealed under high vacuum.
The whole is kept at 264 °C for 2 h (estimated optimal for
rehomogenization) and then quenched with water [11,12].
1.2. Hardness:
The hardness tests are carried out by the Vickers method,
using a durometer testweel under a load of 2 kgf. Each
measurement is the average of up to five trucks spread over
a flat section corresponds to a diametric plane or
perpendicular to the axis of the cylindrical sample.
The sections are obtained by sawing, mechanical abrasion
and chemical polishing. Recall that the empirical relation
HV= 0,3 (Mpa) can be used to evaluate the rupture strength
(R) of these alloys.
1.3. Technical micrographic observation
The physical properties of solid solutions for soaked lead
alloys change from room temperature. The curing
mechanisms correspond to continuous and/or discontinuous
transformations. Indeed, this temperature corresponds to 0,5
Tfusion (°K), temperature at which the alloy elements can
diffuse. The observation of the structure of alloys
corresponding to the continuous/discontinuous
transformations is made by using the optical microscope,
the samples must undergo mechanical polishing, chemical
polishing using hydrogen peroxide 30% H2O2 and three
share of glacial acetic acid for 20 seconds to 2 minutes, then
chemical attack using 100g of ammonium molybdate; 250
g of citric acid and water in sufficient quantity to have a liter
of the mixture [13].
3. International Journal of Civil, Mechanical and Energy Science, 6(6)
Nov-Dec, 2020 | Available: http://ijcmes.com/
ISSN: 2455-5304
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijcmes.66.3 39
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Study of alloy Pb2%Cd1%Bi0,15%Ag:
3.1.1 Hardness :
Fig.2 shows the change in hardness with time of the as cast
alloy Pb2%Cd1%Bi 0,15% Ag at temperatures 20 °C and
80 °C. The initial hardness is of about 12,5 HV, it is much
higher than that of pure lead (5 HV). This shows that partial
conversion has already hardened the alloy during cooling.
At room temperature, hardness increases to reach a value of
about 13,233 HV after 8 hours. Then the hardness slightly
decreased to reach 11,5 HV after 6 months.
At 80 ° C, the kinetics of transformation is more
accelerated and the maximum hardness obtained is of about
13,27 HV. Beyond the 55 min, over-aging occurs and the
hardness decreases significantly to peak 11 HV after 6
months.
Fig.2. Evolution of hardness of the as-cast alloy
Pb2% Cd1% Bi 0.15% Ag at temperatures 20°C and 80°C.
3.1.2 Evolution of quenching structure :
The return to equilibrium of quenching structure was
followed at various temperatures. Fig.3a and fig.3b show
the discontinuous transformation of the alloy Pb2% Cd1%
Bi 0.15% Ag. Indeed, aging is characterized by a continuous
hardening reaction and softening discontinuous processing.
The technique of chemical attacks repeatedly developed by
Hilger [13, 14] allowed highlighting the fronts of the
discontinuous reaction processing as shown in fig.3c and
fig.3d.
Fig.3. Evolution of quenching structure for as-cast alloy
Pb2% Cd1% 0,15% Bi Ag. Visualization of the
discontinuous transformation. a) Aging after 1 hour of
quench. b) Aging after 3 hours of quench. c) after
successive chemical attacks after quenching after 5 hours
of quench. d) Visualization of 1. displacement of fronts
transformations after successive chemical attacks 2. Micro
hardness footprints performed after quenching after 4
hours during aging.
After 4 hours of quenching, we took microhardness
measurements and we found that areas transformed by
discontinuous reaction are less hard than unprocessed by
this reaction, this shows that the metallographic
observations and micro-hardness tests are in compliance
with hardness measurements (Fig.3.d).
For maintaining at 80 °C, aging manifests by a curing which
seems to be close to that maintained at 20 °C as it can be
seen on the curves of hardness of fig.2., Fig.4.a and fig.4.b
visualize discontinuous transformations of the alloy
Pb2%Cd1%Bi0,15%Ag maintained at 80 ° C during aging
and over-aging.
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Hardness(HV)
Time (min)
20°C
80°C
a b
c
2. Continuous
Transformation 14HV
2. Discontinuous
transformation 8HV
1
d
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For stand prolonged at room temperature, the overaging
occurs. From the curves of hardness (Fig.2), the overaging
is usually accompanied by a softening starting after about 8
hours of maintenance at room temperature. For stand
prolonged at room temperature, the overaging occurs. It is
manifested by magnification of discontinuous reaction,
progressing to almost complete covering the sample. The
precipitates from both reactions characterizing the aging
coalesce together to form large precipitates (Fig.4.c) after
one month the matrix become swept by precipitates (Fig.4.d
and Fig.4.e).
Fig.4. Visualization of the discontinuous precipitation
of the as-alloy Pb2% Cd1% Bi0, 15% Ag .
1. Maintained at 80 °C a) After 1 month of quench during
aging b) after 3 days of quench during overaging c) After
1 month of quench during overaging. 2. Maintained at
20°C d) and e) after 1 month of quench.
3.1.3. Kinetic study of the softening discontinuous
precipitation which characterizes the overaging of the alloy
Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,15% Ag:
The kinetics of softening discontinuous precipitation of
the alloy Pb2%Cd1%Bi 0,15%Ag that characterizes
overaging was jointly investigated by hardness
measurements. The heat treatments were carried out at
temperatures 20 °C and 80 °C for times varying from
7 hours to 6 months at 20°C and 55 min to 6 months at 80
°C. And those are applying the law of Johnson Mehl-
Avrami and method of Burke [15].
Fig.5.a shows changes in the degree of advancement x
of the transformation as a function of ln (t) for different
temperatures 20 °C and 80 °C. This gives sigmoid curves,
elongated along the axis of time. Variations in the degree of
advancement at temperatures 20 °C and 80 °C are deducted
from the hardness measurements of the fig.2 relating to
overaging.
The degree of advancement x is calculated from the
following relationship (1) :
𝑥 =
Hv(t)−𝐻𝑣(0)
Hv(∞)−Hv(0)
(1)
With:
Hv(t): hardness at the time (t)
Hv(0): The initial hardness of the discontinuous
precipitation.
Hv(∞): Final hardness
Fig.5.b represents the variation of 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝐿𝑜𝑔 (
1
1−𝑥
)as
function of Log (t-τ).
The start times of this transformation are respectively
7 min and 55 minutes for the temperatures 20 °C and
80 °C. This figure shows that the points are placed on
straight lines. The progress of this reaction is in conformity
with Johnson and Mehl-Avrami equation [15].
Table.1 provides the values of the exponent n calculated
from the slope of the straight lines of fig.5.b and the rate
constants k for the different temperatures. The value of n is
close to 0,5 for both temperatures.
The apparent activation energy Q can be calculated from
the variations of the coefficient k as a function of
temperature. Indeed, in the case where it has an immediate
saturation of the sites, the germination rate becomes zero
and the speed of the front obeys to the equation (2):
𝐾 = 𝑘0 exp (-
𝑄
𝑅𝑇
) (2)
It should be noted that this expression implicitly assumes
that the total number of germs formed is independent of
temperature. This expression achieves the value of the
activation energy relative on the envisaged kinetic regime
through the logarithmic linearized representation (3):
𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑘1
𝑘2
= − (
𝑄
𝑅
) (
1
𝑇1
−
1
𝑇2
) (3)
a b
c
d e
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Assuming that k varies according to the Arrhenius law
from the two coefficient values of Johnson and Mehl-
Avrami equation relating to temperatures 20 °C and 80 °C
characterizing the kinetics of the transformation during
overaging in the case of the crude casting alloy
Pb2% Cd1% Bi0,15% Ag quenched with water, the
relationship (3) Gives an apparent activation energy
Q associated with this reaction close to 12,075 Kj / mol.
To verify that the activation energy does not depend on
the degree of progress, we will use the method of Burke [15]
which calculates activation energy without explaining the
function which represents the experimental curves.
This method involves measuring the tx time to reach a
specified rate x of the precipitation. The Log tx values are
represented as a function of 1 / T in fig.5.c for various values
of x.
The slope of these lines remains practically constant
with x and determines an apparent activation energy Q with
values reported in Table.2.
These values are close to the value of the activation
energy 12,075 Kj / mole given by the method of
Burke [15].
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.5. a) Alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0, 15 % Ag. Transformed
semi-logarithmic of curves from hardness tests at
temperatures 20 ° C and 80 ° C on the softening
discontinuous precipitation of crude casting alloy
quenched with water. b) Representation ln (-ln (1-x)) as a
function of ln (t) on the softening processing of overaging
studied by isothermal hardness variations in the case of
the crude casting alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,15% Ag.
c) As-cast Alloy Pb2% Cd1% Bi 0,15% Ag. Variation of
Log tx as function of 1/T.
Table.1. Coefficients of the equation of Johnson and Mehl-
Avrami at different temperatures during overaging of the
crude casting alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0, 15 % Ag quenched
with water.
Table.2. Values of the apparent activation energy Q for
different processing rates in the case of as-cast alloy
Pb2% Cd1% Bi 0,15% Ag quenched with water.
Advancement degree x Apparente activation
energy Q en (kJ/mol)
0,2 12,962
0,3 12,180
0,5 11,747
0,6 11,772
0,9 12,954
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 5 10 15
ln(-ln(1-x))
ln(t)
20°C
80°C
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5
ln(t)
1000/T
0,2 0,3 0,5
0,6 0,9
Temperature (°C) n k(s-1
)
20 0,556 1,467.10-5
80 0,527 3,402.10-5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5 10 15
x
ln(t)
20°
C
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From Table.2, we found that the activation energy remains
constant, it does not depend on the degree of advancement,
and it is about 12,323 KJ / mol. So we get a value that is
about 8 times smaller than the energy of auto diffusion of
lead which is of the order of 104,6 KJ / mol and the lowest
compared to all the alloys studied in this report. This
confirms the ease of the growth of the curing reaction.
3.2. Influence of silver
3.2.1. Influence of silver on the alloy
Pb2% Cd1% Bi
Fig.6 shows the change in hardness with time of aging at
room temperature for crude casting alloy Pb2% Cd1% Bi
with contents by weight of silver: 0,07%, 0,15 % and 0,3%.
Overall, these curves have almost the same pace as that of
the raw casting alloy without silver [2]. Moreover, we note
that the average of silver content (approximately 0,15%)
which allows for maximum of hardness relatively high
compared to other proportions.
Indeed, the influence of silver is translated as well: for low
levels of silver, there is an increase in the maximum
hardness and delay of the kinetics of transformations
governing the hardening of these alloys. Gradually, as the
silver concentration increases, the phenomena are reversed:
we are witnessing a decrease in the maximum of hardness
and an acceleration of the kinetics of hardening
transformations.
Fig.6. Evolution of hardness as function of time at room
temperature for the crude casting alloys Pb 2% Cd 1%
Bi; Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0, 07 % Ag et Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi
0,15% Ag, Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0 ,3% Ag.
3.2.2. Evolution of quenching structure
Metallographic observations showed that the
microstructures of the different raw casting alloys are the
same. Indeed, we visualized the continuous and
discontinuous changes during aging and discontinuous
precipitation during overaging in all studied alloys.
Fig.7.a, fig.7.b and fig.7.c show continuous and
discontinuous changes in the alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,07%
Ag during aging and overaging while fig.7.d and fig.7.e
represent the transformations in the alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi
0,3% Ag
Fig.7. Visualisation oft he discontinuous precipitation of of
as-cast alloy maintained at 20°C .
for Pb 2 % Cd 1 % Bi 0,07 % Ag . a) After 80 min of
quench during aging b) After 1 day of quench during
overaging c) after 2 days of quench during overaging.
And for Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,3% Ag d) After 50 min of
quench during aging e) After 2 days of quench during
overaging.
3.2.3. Influence of silver on the alloys
Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi:
3.2.3.1. Hardness
To see the influence of silver on the alloy that gave the
strongest performance in terms of hardness we worked on
the alloy strongly charged in Bismuth Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi.
Fig.8 shows the change in hardness with time at
temperature 20°C for the crude casting alloy
Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi with different proportions on silver:
0.07 % Ag, 0.2 % Ag and 0.3 % Ag. Overall, these curves
have almost the same pace in comparison with the influence
of silver on the alloy lightly loaded on bismuth.
The influence of high concentrations of silver results in a
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Hardness(HV)
Time (min)
Pb2%Cd1%Bi
Pb2%Cd1%Bi0,07%Ag
Pb2%Cd1%B0,15%Ag
Pb2%Cd1%B0,3%Ag
a b
c
d e
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retardation of the kinetics of transformation governing the
structural hardening of these alloys and amplification of
hardness. But more than the silver concentration increases
the phenomena are reversed.
Fig.8. Evolution of hardness versus time at room
temperature for as-cast alloys Pb 2 % Cd 3% Bi; Pb 2%
Cd 3% Bi 0,07 % Ag, Pb 2 % Cd 3 % Bi 0,2 % Ag and Pb
2 % Cd 3 % Bi 0, 3 % Ag.
3.2.3.2. Evolution of quenching structure :
The evolution of quench structure was observed by optical
microscopy at room temperature. We were able to see a
grain boundary as shown in Fig.9a. We were also able to
detect particular forms of precipitates due to the formation
of a second phase during solidification of the alloy (fig.9b
and fig.9c). For fig.9b and from the literature [5], it is the
Ag5Cd8 precipitate.
Indeed, analyzes by electron microprobe on the alloy
Pb 3,2 % Cd 0,15 % Ag [5] shows that silver does not
participate in hardening mechanisms of this alloy. It is
almost completely contained in Ag5Cd8 or congealed, in
very small quantities in the grain boundaries. The influence
of silver resides in a slight increase in the hardness of the
quenched structure which is maintained over time. This
increase is due to the presence of precipitates Ag5Cd8 that
are very hard.
In the alloy with 0,2 % Ag, is observed colonies
precipitated as aureoles (or nodules) that probably
originate from the eutectic liquid (Fig.10.a). Gradually, as
time increases we are seeing a growth of precipitate that
scans the entire matrix (Fig.10.b).
.
Fig.9. Visualization of a grain boundary of the as cast
alloy Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,07 % Ag maintained at 20
°C during aging.
Fig.10. Visualisation of a) Eutectic mixtures of as-cast
alloy of Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,2%Ag after 1 day of quenching
maintained at 20°C during overaging b) Discontinuous
precipitation of as-cast alloy Pb 2 % Cd 3% Bi 0,3 % Ag
after 1 day of quenching maintained at 20°C during
overaging.
By performing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on
the Pb 2 % Cd 3 % Bi 0.3 % Ag alloy after 1 year of aging
(Fig.11.a), the energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyzes
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1 100 10000 1000000
Hardness(HV)
Time (min)
Pb2%Cd3%Bi
Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,07%Ag
Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,2%Ag
Pb2%Cd3%Bi0,3%Ag Grain boundaries Ag5Cd8 Precipitate
a) After 40 min of
quenching during aging
b) After 1 day of quenching
during overaging
Arborescent precipitate
c) After 1 day of quenching
during overaging
ba
Eutectic aureoles
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performed on the matrix (Fig.11.b) confirm the
simultaneous presence of lead and bismuth with a very low
proportion of cadmium. However, we did not detect silver
(Table.3). This explains why the precipitate is rich in silver
and cadmium, which is in conformity with the study of the
structural hardening of the Pb-Cd-
Ag alloy [6,7].
Fig.11. Visualization by the a) SEM b) EDX of the
matrix of the alloy Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0.3% Ag crude
casting quenched with water at 20 ° C after 1 year of
quenching.
Table.3. Results of the analyzes made by EDX carried
out on the alloy Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0.3% Ag crude casting
maintained after 1 year of quenching at room temperature.
Analyzed phase by
EDX
Element Weight %
Matrix
Pb 80,21
Bi 19,42
Cd 0,37
Ag 0
Total 100
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis performed on the
alloy Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,3% Mg only visualize the peaks of
the solid solution α lead, with a face centered cubic crystal
structure.
However, we can’t say that the precipitation of
secondary phases has not occurred; the deduction we can
make is that the XRD could not highlight such precipitation
and this is because of the small size of the additive elements
relative to that of lead.
Fig.12 shows the results of XRD found on the alloy
Pb 2% Cd 3 %Bi 0,3% Ag. While table.4 bring together
crystallographic parameters of these alloys.
Fig.12. X ray diffraction analyses of the surface of the
alloy Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,3% Mg.
According to the X-rays diffraction pattern in fig.12,
Treatment of diffraction patterns or spectra of the alloy
Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,3% Mg, highlights the peaks of the solid
solution α lead, with a crystalline structure CFC.
Table.4. Crystallographic parameters of the alloy
Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,3% Mg.
2θ
[16]
2θ
Calculated
d hkl hkl Parameter a
(Å)
31.270 31.81890 2.81200 111 4.87052
36.262 36.71800 2.42963 200 4.85926
52.220 52.72969 1.72862 220 4.88927
62.139 62.64737 1.47371 311 4.88774
65.233 65.63463 1.40998 222 4.88431
76.985 77.34467 1.22942 400 4.91768
85.416 85.70898 1.12321 331 4.89595
88.189 88.45725 1.09134 420 4.88062
99.334 99.56984 1.00637 422 4.93018
a
a
b
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3.3. Influence of rehomogenization treatment of the alloy
Pb 2%Cd 1%Bi 0,15% Ag
3.3.1. Hardness :
To study the influence of segregation cells of the
solidification structure on mechanical properties, we
conducted a parallel study on the rehomogenized alloy.
Fig.13 shows the variations in hardness versus time of
aging of the as-cast and rehomogenized alloys
Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,15% Ag kept at room temperature. We
find that both alloys age in the same way but with an
acceleration of the kinetics of the hardening process for the
rehomogenized alloy. This acceleration is due to the
dissolution of segregation cells from the solidification
structure.
Indeed, the maximum hardness of the rehomogenized
samples is 13,38 HV which is reached after 60 min while
that of the as-cast sample is 13,23HV which is reached after
7 hours.
Fig.13. Evolution of hardness versus time at room
temperature for as-cast and rehomogenized alloy
Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,15% Ag.
3.3.2. Evolution of quenching structure
The micrograph of fig.14.a shows the initial structure of
the rehomogenized alloy Pb 2% Cd 1% Bi 0,15% Ag, it is
manifested by the presence of areas of eutectic mixtures.
The early days of aging are characterized by the initiation
of a discontinuous transformation (Fig.14.b and 14.c).
For prolonged maintain at room temperature, the fig.14.d
and fig.14.e shows the areas processed by the discontinuous
growth which is responsible for overaging, which is
manifested by a discontinuous reaction mechanism.
Fig.14. Visualisation of rehomogenized alloy Pb 2% Cd
1% Bi 0,15% Ag maintained at 20°C a) eutectic mixtures
after 20 min of quenching maintained at 20 ° C during
aging. b) and c) Viewing the fronts of the discontinuous
transformation after successive chemical attacks. d)
Discontinuous precipitation after 1 hour of quench e)
Discontinuous precipitation after 3 days of quench.
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Hardness(HV)
Time(min)
20°C Rehomogenized
Eutectic
mixture
a
b c
Displacement of front
transformation
b) After 25 min and 30 min
c) 30 min,35 min,42 min and
55 min
d e
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IV. CONCLUSION
Several Researches has been done on lead alloys in order
to improve mechanical and electrochemical properties, we
cite Pb – Ca, Pb – Sb, Pb – Cd, Pb–Sr, Pb–Sn, Pb–Ca–Sn,
Pb–Sb–Sn, Pb–Sb–Cd, Pb – Sr – Sn, etc.[17-30]
The phenomena of aging and overaging of PbCdBiAg
alloys are similar to those of PbCdBi alloys. Indeed, the
continuous and discontinuous transformations are the two
concurrent reactions characterizing the aging. This
discontinuous transformation is initiated by the
displacement of the fronts of transformations. As against the
over-aging is manifested by softening discontinuous
precipitation.
The effect of silver on PbCdBi element alloys results in a
slight increase in hardness. The presence of this element
causes at time of solidification the formation of a particular
microstructure. Indeed, we could visualize the Ag5Cd8
compound which is formed during solidification of the alloy
Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,07% Ag.
The influence of high concentrations of silver results in a
retardation of the kinetics of transformation governing
structural hardening of these alloys and amplification of
hardness. But more than the silver concentration increases
the phenomena are reversed. Indeed, we find that it is the
average contents of silver 0,15% Ag and 0,2% Ag that allow
for relatively high hardness.
Aging mechanisms of rehomogenized alloys PbCdBiAg
are similar to those of the crude casting alloys and we are
witnessing an acceleration of the kinetics of the curing
reaction. This acceleration is due to the dissolution of
segregations cells from the solidification structure.
The X-ray diffraction analysis performed on alloys Pb 2%
Cd 3% Bi 0,07% Ag and Pb 2% Cd 3% Bi 0,3% Mg only
visualize the peaks of the solid solution α lead, with a cubic
face centered crystal structure, this is due to their small size.
We also determined the parameters of the crystal structure
of PbCdBiAg alloys.
Finally, a comparison of the hardness values obtained by
alloys PbCdBiAg to those given by the ternary alloys
PbCdBi shows the beneficial action of the additions of
silver on the mechanical properties of these alloys.
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