This document summarizes research from educational neuroscience and provides implications for the ESL college classroom. It discusses key findings such as how movement and emotions impact learning, the importance of the learning environment, neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. It then offers specific strategies instructors can use to build novelty into lessons, reduce student fear of mistakes, create a dopamine-releasing environment and utilize music to enhance language learning based on how the brain works. Suggestions include varying activities, allowing mistakes, incorporating humor and choice, and using music carefully selected for its lyrics and level.

1. educational neuroscience:
implications for the ESL college classroom
prepared by Leila Palis, English Faculty, Paradise Valley Community
College, Phoenix, AZ
supported by a grant from the Maricopa Community Colleges, 2013

2. defining educational
neuroscience
• the intersection between psychology, pedagogy, and
neuroscience
educational
neuroscience
psychology
the study of the
human mind and its
functions
pedagogy
the method and
practice of teaching
neuroscience
the study of the
structure, function,
and development of
the brain

3. some definitions
• neurons: specialized cells in the brain that carry
information
• dendrites: part of the neuron that transports electrical
signals to the cell body
• axons: part of the neuron that transports electrical signals
away from the cell body
• synapse: the connection between brain cells
• neurotransmitters: chemical signals used by the neurons
for communication
image: Commissariat, T. (2011). Physicists in tune with neurons. Retrieved from http://www.physicsworld.com.

4. history of educational
neuroscience
• researchers unable to study the living human brain until
development of CAT scan and MRI (1970s)
• researchers unable to study brain function until the
development of PET scan (1970s) and fMRI (1990s)
• 1990’s termed “decade of the brain;” major federal
funding went toward neuroscience research
• educators began to look at the findings and see how they
applied to teaching
Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

5. what the research tells us
• movement improves memory and learning
• brain more active when students are moving around*
• movement results in more blood to the brain*
• movement allows for greater access to long-term memory
(more connections to prior learning)**
• exercise correlated with rises in brain mass and production
of cells; improvement in cognitive processing and
regulation of mood*
*Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
** Scholey, A., Moss, M., Neave, N., & Wesnes, K. (1999). Cognitive performance, hyperoxia, and heart rate following oxygen administration in healthy young adults. Physiology & Behavior, 67(5), 783-789
Image: http://www.markmincolla.com/site/neuroplasticity-notes/.

6. what the research tells us
• emotions have a major impact on learning
• educators need to understand the role of emotions,
especially stress, on students’ ability to concentrate*
• students must also feel physically safe and emotionally
confident*
• parts of brain responsible for emotional control and rational
thought not fully developed until 21-22 years**
*Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
** Giedd, J.N. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Natural Neuroscience, 2(10), 861-863.

7. what the research tells us
• learning environment is important
• emotional learning environment
• openness of communication, expectation level, recognition, and
appreciation of effort affect the social environment*
• when students are engaged with the material on an emotional level,
more creative thinking occurs**
• stress and pleasure influence how the brain filters sensory input
• stress sends sensory input to the lower reactive brain so it is not
available for higher cognitive processing in the thinking brain
• sensory input that is novel or linked to pleasure most easily gets
through to the thinking brain***
• physical learning environment
• students must also feel physically safe and emotionally confident*
• novelty in the learning environment influences brain’s visual
attention mechanism****
• natural, full-spectrum lighting increases performance**
*Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
**Hardiman, M.M. (2010). The creative-artistic brain. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (227-248). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
***Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-65). Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.

8. what the research tells us
• the brain can grow new neurons (neurogenesis)
• brain can grow new neurons in the hippocampus, which is
the area responsible for encoding long-term memories*
• regrowth is called neurogenesis and is correlated with
memory, learning, and mood**
• neurogenesis can be improved with balanced nutrition,
exercise, and low stress levels***
*Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. New nerve cells for the adult brain. Scientific American Special Edition, 12(1), 38-44.
**Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
***Kempermann, G., Wiskott, L., & Gage, F.H. (2004). Functional significance of adult neurogenesis. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 196-191. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.001.

9. what the research tells us
• the brain can rewire itself (neuroplasticity)
• happens more quickly than originally thought
• programs have been developed to rewire the cerebral
networks of struggling readers to be more like those of
strong readers
• neuroplasticity continues throughout one's lifetime
Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain , & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Image: http://tedwordsblog.com/2013/06/26/mindfulness-momentum-7-reasons-to-start-or-boost-your-practice-now/neuroplasticity/.

10. what the research tells us
• dopamine levels influence learning
• dopamine helps to transport information between neurons
• dopamine can be triggered by different teaching strategies
• students engaged in learning that correlates with higher levels of
dopamine release will be more focused and motivated and have
increased memory
• more dopamine released when a student’s response is correct than
when it is incorrect
• increased dopamine results in higher intrinsic motivation
• immediate corrective feedback after an incorrect response is also
important
• lowered dopamine from an incorrect response alters the brain’s
memory circuitry to avoid making the same mistake and
experiencing a drop in dopamine (dopamine disappointment
response)
Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-65). Bloomington, IN: Solution
Tree Press.

11. what the research tells us
• short-term memory is not that temporary
• two parts of short-term memory:
• immediate memory (incoming information is first processed
for only a few seconds)
• working memory (information is consciously processed here
for a longer period of time)
• information can be stored in working memory for up to
several weeks
• sense and meaning are the most important criteria used by
the brain to choose what gets encoded to long-term memory
Sousa, D.A. (2010). How science met pedagogy. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (9-26). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

12. what the research tells us
• music influences language learning
• processing of music and language occurs in same region of
the brain
• parallels between musical and syntactical processing
• songs introduce rhythm and intonation and their affects on
pronunciation in a contextual way
• songs introduce reductions, imperatives, and questions in a
contextual way
• certain music aids in memory and recall
• motivation to understand popular music is high
• certain music can create a calm and relaxed environment
Lems, K. (2001).Using music in the adult ESL classroom. ERIC Digest.org, ED45964 .

13. what the research tells us
• language and the brain
• language is lateralized to the left hemisphere for most people*
• speech and language are the most lateralized human brain functions*
• lateralization is an ongoing process until at least 20 years old*
• working memory (information is consciously processed here for a longer
period of time)
• right brain vital to having a flexible and fully functioning language system*
• understanding inferences and humor
• complex syntax
• taking over when left hemisphere is taxed
• language network interacts with other parts of the brain, depending on the
language activity*
• speech and language are part of the cognitive process, not separate from it*
• adolescence is when more sophisticated language develops*
• second language acquisition relies on different cognitive processes in
childhood than in later life*
• instead of critical periods with language acquisition, there are sensitive
periods**
*Williams,D. (2010). The speaking brain. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (85-109). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
**Anderson, M., & Della Sala, S. (2012). Neuroscience in education: An (opinionated) introduction. In M. Anderson & S. Della Sala (Eds.), Neuroscience and education: The good , the bad, and the ugly (3-12).
Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press .

14. Implications for the ESL college classroom
build
novelty into
learning
reduce fear
of mistakes
create a
dopamine-
releasing
environment
choose the
best
textbooks
use music
how to create a learning environment with the brain in mind

15. Implications for the ESL college classroom
build
novelty
into
learning
some suggestions…
• modulate voice when delivering information*
• use variations in font size in printed material*
• vary seating arrangements periodically*
• give clues about the day’s lesson and have
students guess what it might be about*
*Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-65). Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.

16. Implications for the ESL college classroom
build
novelty
into
learning
some suggestions…
• begin each class session with a quotation
presented by a student
• put a timeline on the board and let students
attach objects to it to demonstrate different verb
tenses
• use images and video clips in a meaningful
way (introduce a new verb tense with a video
clip or image depicting an action that
represents the tense)

17. Implications for the ESL college classroom
reduce
fear of
mistakes
some suggestions…
• use low-risk activities to practice language
concepts
• BINGO, word puzzles, role-playing
• draw students’ names from a bag for
participation; let students know they always
have the opportunity to “pass,” and their name
will be put back into the bag
• allow students to use their own method of note-
taking*
• some students feel more comfortable writing
outlines or drawing images than participating in
standard note-taking
*Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-65). Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.

18. Implications for the ESL college classroom
reduce
fear of
mistakes
some suggestions…
• have students teach a concept to the class
• this works well as a group activity and is especially
effective for reviewing material from previous class levels
• allow students to use clickers to answer
questions anonymously

19. Implications for the ESL college classroom
create a
dopamine-
releasing
environment
some suggestions…
• smile*
• create activities that encourage students to move around
the classroom*
• use speed-dating as a model for conversation activities
• have students move to a new partner every 5 minutes
• use humor*
• laughter increases dopamine
• humorous YouTube videos can be used to illustrate
concepts
• students can create cartoons to illustrate a
written dialogue that another student has written
• create chances for incremental assessment*
• respond to students’ writing and speaking as it occurs even
if it is in an informal way
*Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-
65). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

20. Implications for the ESL college classroom
create a
dopamine-
releasing
environment
some suggestions…
• give students options on assignments*
• let students decide on dialogue topics
• give students topic
choices for written assignments
• allow students to collaborate*
• let students work together on particularly difficult
concepts
• find opportunities for students to help each
other understand unclear concepts
• give students opportunities to draw on pleasant memories
for personal examples
• connecting material to important memories increases
motivation and helps students to encode information into
long-term memory
*Willis, Judy. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D.A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, & education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (45-65). Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.

21. Implications for the ESL college classroom
choose
the best
textbook
some suggestions…
• meaningful explanations of material must be given*
• explanations should focus on importance of a concept or
skill to language learning and to understanding English
• material and examples in the book must be connected to
real-world situations*
• relationships between material in chapters must be clear
(the brain is a pattern seeker)**
• each chapter should remind students of what has been
covered in previous chapters, not just at the beginning of
the chapter but throughout
*Devlin K. (2010). The mathematical brain. In David A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, Brain, & Education (163-178). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
**Schoenfeld, A. H. (1988). When good teaching leads to bad results: The disasters of "well-taught" mathematics courses.Educational Psychologist, 23 (2), 145-166.

22. Implications for the ESL college classroom
choose
the best
textbook
some suggestions…
• textbook should allow for as much active learning as
possible***
•exercises should be easily adaptable to individual or
group work
•companion CDs should offer visual and audio
reinforcements to the textbook
•opportunities for students to utilize divergent thinking
should be included
•opportunities for discussion should be included
***NCTM. (2011). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.usi.edu/science/math/sallyk/standards/document/chapter2/index.htm.

23. Implications for the ESL college classroom
use
music
some suggestions…
• cut song lyrics into strips and have students put them
in order after listening to the song*
• have students listen to a song and then summarize
the meaning in writing or orally*
• use songs to discuss culture*
• have students present their favorite songs and
discuss their meanings
• use relaxing music to begin and end class*
• when choosing music, consider the following:
• songs lyrics should be clear*
• vocabulary should be appropriate for level being
taught*
• pre-screen musical content*
*Lems, K. (2001).Using music in the adult ESL classroom. ERIC Digest.org, ED45964.