The document describes several classes of drugs, including their uses, mechanisms of action, and examples. ACE inhibitors are used to treat heart failure, hypertension, and other conditions by preventing artery constriction. Analgesics relieve pain and are divided into opioids and non-opioids like paracetamol. Antibiotics treat bacterial infections by destroying or preventing bacteria from multiplying. Antiemetics prevent vomiting by blocking signals to the brain. Antiepileptics prevent or terminate seizures by treating the specific type of epilepsy.

1. Drug Classes

2. ACE inhibitors
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitors allow blood vessels to dilate by
preventing the formation of angiotensin
II, a powerful artery constrictor.
• Used in the treatment of heart failure,
hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and
post-myocardial infarction.

4. Analgesics
• Used to relieve pain and can be divided into
opioids and non-opioids.
• Opioids block transmission of pain signals
within the brain and spinal cord.
• They include morphine and pethidine and are
used to treat moderate to severe pain arising
from surgery, serious injury and terminal
illness.

5. Non-opioids are less powerful and
work by blocking the
production of prostaglandins,
thereby preventing stimulation
of nerve endings at the site of pain.
They include paracetamol
and non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs such as aspirin.

7. Antibiotics
• Used to treat bacterial disorders ranging from minor
infections to deadly diseases.
• Antibiotics work by destroying the bacteria or
preventing them from multiplying while the body’s
immune system works to clear the invading
organism.
• There are different classes of antibiotic, which
include penicillins, cephalosporins, macrolides,
tetracyclines, aminoglycosides and glycopeptides.

9. Antiemetics
• Act by blocking signals to the vomiting
centre in the brain which triggers the
vomiting reflex.
• Used to prevent or treat vomiting and
nausea caused by motion sickness,
vertigo, digestive tract infection and to
counteract the side-effects of some
drugs.

11. Antiepileptics
• Used to prevent or terminate epileptic
seizures.
• There are several types of epilepsy, each
treated by a specific antiepileptic
medication.
• It is therefore essential to classify the
type of seizure in order to treat it
effectively and minimize side-effects.

13. Antiretrovirals
• Specific antiviral drugs for the treatment of
infection caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• There are two groups:
• 1) Reverse-transcriptase inhibitor
• 2) Protease inhibitors
• 3) Integrase inhibitor
• 4) Entry inhibitor

14. • Reverse transcriptase inhibitors reduce the
activity of the reverse transcriptase enzyme,
which is vital for virus replication.
• They are divided according to their chemical
structure into nucleoside and non-nucleoside
inhibitors.
• Protease inhibitors interfere with the protease
enzyme.
• To reduce the development of drug resistance
the drugs are used in combination.

15. • Treatment is usually initiated with a
combination of two nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) plus a non-
nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor
(NNRTI) or a protease inhibitor (often referred
to as ‘ triple therapy ’ ).
• Antiretrovirals are not a cure for HIV but they
increase life expectancy considerably.
• However, they are toxic and treatment
regimens have to be carefully balanced.

17. β -blockers
• Prevent stimulation of the β -adrenoreceptors in the
heart muscle and peripheral vasculature, bronchi,
pancreas and liver.
• Used to treat hypertension, angina, myocardial
infarction, arrhythmias and thyrotoxicosis.
• Can also be used to alleviate some symptoms of
anxiety.
• Since blocking β -adrenoreceptors in the lungs can
lead to constriction of air passages, care needs to
be taken when treating patients with asthma or
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

19. Benzodiazepines
• Increase the inhibitory effect of gamma-
aminobutyric acid , which depresses brain cell
activity in the higher centres of the brain
controlling consciousness.
• Used for anxiety, insomnia, convulsions,
sedation for medical procedures and alcohol
withdrawal.

21. Bronchodilators
• Dilate the airways to assist breathing
when constricted or congested with
mucus.
• There are two main types:
1) Sympathomimetics
2) Anticholinergics

22. • Sympathomimetics (e.g. salbutamol)
stimulate β2 – adrenoreceptors on the surface
of bronchial smooth muscle cells causing the
muscle to relax.
• Anticholinergics (e.g. ipratropium bromide)
act by blocking the neurotransmitters that
trigger muscle contraction.
• Both are used to treat asthma and other
conditions associated with reversible airways
obstruction such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease.

24. Calcium channel blockers
• Interfere with the transport of calcium ions
through the cell walls of cardiac and vascular
smooth muscle.
• Reduce the contractility of the heart, depress
the formation and conduction of impulses in
the heart and cause peripheral vasodilation.
• Used to treat angina, hypertension and
arrhythmias.

26. Corticosteroids
• Reduce inflammation by inhibiting the formation of
inflammatory mediators, e.g. prostaglandins.
• Used to control many inflammatory disorders
thought to be caused by excessive or inappropriate
activity of the immune system, e.g. asthma,
rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, eczema, as well as
inflammation caused by strain and damage to
muscles and tendons.
• Also known as glucocorticoids.

28. Diuretics
• Work on the kidneys to increase the amount
of sodium and water excreted.
• There are different types of diuretic that work
on the nephron:
• Thiazides
(bendroflumethiazide/bendrofluazide)
• Loop (furosemide/frusemide, bumetanide)
• Potassium-sparing (amiloride, spironolactone)
• Osmotic (mannitol)

29. • Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
(acetazolamide, dorzolamide)
• Used to treat hypertension (thiazides),
chronic heart failure and oedema (loop
diuretics, thiazides or a combination of
both), glaucoma (carbonic anhydrase
inhibitors or osmotic), raised intracranial
pressure (osmotic).

31. Inotropes
• Work by increasing the contractility of
the heart muscle.
• They can be divided into three groups:
• Cardiac glycosides (e.g. digoxin) assist
activity of heart muscle by increasing
intracellular calcium storage in
myocardial cells.
• Used for heart failure and
supraventricular arrhythmias.

32. • Sympathomimetics (e.g. dobutamine,
dopamine) stimulate β1 -receptors on the
heart which increase the rate and force of
myocardial contraction. Provide inotropic
support in infarction, cardiac surgery,
cardiomyopathies, septic shock and
cardiogenic shock.
• Phosphodiesterase inhibitors (e.g. milrinone)
inactivate cyclic AMP, which increases the
force of myocardial contraction and relaxes
vascular smooth muscle.
• Used to treat congestive heart failure.

34. Mucolytics
• Reduce the viscosity of
bronchopulmonary secretions by
breaking down their molecular
complexes.
• Used to treat excessive or thickened
mucus secretions.

36. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs)
• Inhibit the production of prostaglandins,
which are responsible for inflammation
and pain following tissue damage.
• They are called non-steroidals to
distinguish them from corticosteroids,
which have a similar function.
• Used for inflammatory diseases, pain
and pyrexia.