Discuss the specific properties of the 5 classes of Immunoglobulins .pdf
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Discuss the specific properties of the 5 classes of Immunoglobulins and the specific component parts that each have (i.e., J chain, SC protein, CDR regions, ITAM regions, complement activation, allotype variation). Solution Generally there are 5 classes of immunoglobins, and they are IgG, IgM,IgA, IgD and IgE. IgG It is the major immunoglobin present in the serum almost about 75 % of immunoglobin in serum is IgG. Its an important antibody in secondary immune response. It promotes opsonization and fixes complement and also enhances phagocytosis. IgM It is the third most common immunoglobin in the serum. It is the first immunoglobin to be made by the fetus. It has a pentameric structure. The pentamer has a J chain. Most capable of complement fixation, agglutination. Present mainly on B cells and effective against viruses and bacteria. IgM have about 60 CDR’s. IgA Secretory immunoglobin mainly present in tears, saliva, colostrum and helps in removal of microbes from mucous membrane. Consist of 2 heavy chains and two light chains joined by a J chain. It does not fix complement. Colostrum is having abundant IgA. SC protein is a part of IgA. IgD Present in low levels in serum and found on B cell surface. Exist as monomers. Complement binding is not done by IgD. The exact function of this class is still not known precisely. IgE Monomeric in nature and least amounts are present. Responsible for allergic reactions. Present in skin and lungs. Do not fix complement. Effective against parasites in the body. Commonly related to diseases like asthma. CDR’s: Except IgM all other antibodies have 12 CDR’s. Since IgM is a pentameric molecule it has about 60 CDR’s. ITAM regions: These are motifs present in the Fc receptors of immunoglobin molecule. Allotype: Allele of the antibody chains is termed as allotype..
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classes of immunoglobulin
There are five classes of immunoglobulins or antibodies found in serum: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different structure and function. IgA is found in mucous membranes and body fluids. It prevents attachment of viruses and bacteria. IgD is found on B cells and may help initiate immune responses. IgE binds to mast cells and basophils and triggers allergic reactions. IgG is the most abundant antibody and can cross the placenta to provide immunity to infants. IgM is the first antibody produced during infection and can activate the complement system.
Immunoglobulin Structure and Classes.docx
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped glycoproteins that play a critical role in the immune system's defense against infection. Antibodies consist of two light chains and two heavy chains that determine antigen binding. There are five classes of antibodies - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - that differ in structure, function, and location. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in blood and tissues and provides long-term protection against pathogens through various effector functions. IgM is the first antibody produced during infection and activates the complement system through its pentameric structure. IgA protects mucosal surfaces as a dimer in secretions.
antibodies.pptx
OUTCOMES
By the end of this session student should be able to know
The structure of antibody
Immunoglobulin classes
Monoclonal antibodies VS polyclonal
INTRODUCTION
Antibodies are globulin proteins (immunoglobulins [Ig]) that react specifically with the antigen that stimulated their production.
They make up about 20% of the protein in blood plasma. Blood contains three types of globulins,
alpha,
beta,
gamma,
Antibodies are gamma globulins.
INTRODUCTION
There are five classes of antibodies:
1. IgG,
2. IgM,
3. IgA,
4. IgD,
5. IgE
Antibodies are subdivided into these five classes based on differences in their heavy chains.
ROLE OF ANTIBODIES
The most important functions of antibodies are to
neutralize toxins and viruses,
to opsonize microbes
so they are more easily phagocytosed, to activate complement, and to prevent the attachment of microbes to mucosal surfaces.
In addition to these functions, antibodies have a catalytic (enzymatic) capability
Antibody Type
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM
Function
Found in saliva, tears, mucus, breast milk and intestinal fluid, IgA protects against ingested and inhaled pathogens.
This antibody is found on the surface of your B cells. Though its exact function is unclear, experts think that IgD supports B cell maturation and activation.
Found mainly in the skin, lungs and mucus membranes, IgE antibodies cause your mast cells (a type of white blood cell) to release histamine and other chemicals into your bloodstream. IgE antibodies are helpful for fighting off allergic reactions.
This is the most common antibody, making up approximately 70% to 75% of all immunoglobulins in your body. It’s found mainly in blood and tissue fluids. IgG antibodies help protect your body from viral and bacterial infections.
Found in your blood and lymph system, IgM antibodies act as the first line of defense against infections. They also play a large role in immune regulation.
MONOCLONAL VS POLYCLONAL
A. Polyclonal antibodies contain a heterologous mixture of IgGs against the whole antigen
B. monoclonal antibodies are composed of a single IgG against one epitope.
Polyclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies
Refer to a mixture of immunoglobulin molecules that are secreted against a particular antigen.
Refer to a homogenous population of antibodies that are produced by a single clone of plasma B cells.
Produced by different clones of plasma B cells.
Produced by the same clone of plasma B cells.
A heterogeneous antibody population.
A homogenous antibody population.
Interact with different epitopes on the same antigen.
Interact with a particular epitope on the antigen.
STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY
Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins made up of
1. light (L)
2. heavy (H) polypeptide chains.
The terms light and heavy refer to molecular weight
STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY
The simplest antibody molecule has a Y shape consist of
IMMUNOLOGY
This document summarizes key aspects of immunology and the immune system. It discusses the basic components and functions of the immune system, including T cells, B cells, antibodies, and antigens. It also describes multiple myeloma, a type of cancer characterized by overproduction of abnormal antibodies that can cause organ damage. The roles of different antibody classes such as IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE are outlined.
Antibody (immunoglobulin) structures and types
This document summarizes the main types of antibodies (immunoglobulins). It discusses the structure of antibodies, which consist of two heavy chains and two light chains arranged in a Y-shape. Antibodies are classified based on their heavy chain type, with the main types being IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. Each antibody type serves a different function, such as IgG being the most common antibody in serum and IgA providing defense in external secretions like breast milk. In summary, the document outlines the structure of antibodies and classifies the main antibody types while briefly describing their functions in the immune system.
Structure and function of antibody molecules
Porter first proposed the 4-chain antibody model in 1959. Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped proteins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens. There are five main types of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE, which are defined by their heavy chains. Each antibody consists of two light chains and two heavy chains connected by disulfide bonds. The variable region allows antibodies to bind to different antigens, while the constant region defines the antibody class. The five classes have different structures and functions, such as IgM activating the complement system as the first antibody response.
Antibody types and function
The document discusses antibody types and functions. It begins by introducing antibodies as immunoglobulins produced by plasma cells in response to antigens. There are five main antibody isotypes - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which differ based on their heavy chain composition. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in blood and body fluids. IgA represents 15-20% of antibodies and is involved in mucosal immunity. IgM is expressed on B cells and secreted, normally forming polymers. IgD's function is unknown but it may regulate antigen receptors. IgE plays an important role in defending against parasites and is responsible for allergic reactions by triggering granulocyte chemical release.
Structure and function of immunoglobulins
The document discusses three immunoglobulins: IgA, IgM, and IgD. IgA is the predominant immunoglobulin found in exocrine secretions. It has two subclasses, IgA1 and IgA2, which are heavily glycosylated proteins that provide local immunity by protecting epithelial tissues. IgM is the first antibody produced in response to infection. As a pentamer, it is very effective at activating the complement classical pathway. IgD is found in low amounts and its role is to signal B cell activation.
Recommended
classes of immunoglobulin
There are five classes of immunoglobulins or antibodies found in serum: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different structure and function. IgA is found in mucous membranes and body fluids. It prevents attachment of viruses and bacteria. IgD is found on B cells and may help initiate immune responses. IgE binds to mast cells and basophils and triggers allergic reactions. IgG is the most abundant antibody and can cross the placenta to provide immunity to infants. IgM is the first antibody produced during infection and can activate the complement system.
Immunoglobulin Structure and Classes.docx
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped glycoproteins that play a critical role in the immune system's defense against infection. Antibodies consist of two light chains and two heavy chains that determine antigen binding. There are five classes of antibodies - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - that differ in structure, function, and location. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in blood and tissues and provides long-term protection against pathogens through various effector functions. IgM is the first antibody produced during infection and activates the complement system through its pentameric structure. IgA protects mucosal surfaces as a dimer in secretions.
antibodies.pptx
OUTCOMES
By the end of this session student should be able to know
The structure of antibody
Immunoglobulin classes
Monoclonal antibodies VS polyclonal
INTRODUCTION
Antibodies are globulin proteins (immunoglobulins [Ig]) that react specifically with the antigen that stimulated their production.
They make up about 20% of the protein in blood plasma. Blood contains three types of globulins,
alpha,
beta,
gamma,
Antibodies are gamma globulins.
INTRODUCTION
There are five classes of antibodies:
1. IgG,
2. IgM,
3. IgA,
4. IgD,
5. IgE
Antibodies are subdivided into these five classes based on differences in their heavy chains.
ROLE OF ANTIBODIES
The most important functions of antibodies are to
neutralize toxins and viruses,
to opsonize microbes
so they are more easily phagocytosed, to activate complement, and to prevent the attachment of microbes to mucosal surfaces.
In addition to these functions, antibodies have a catalytic (enzymatic) capability
Antibody Type
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM
Function
Found in saliva, tears, mucus, breast milk and intestinal fluid, IgA protects against ingested and inhaled pathogens.
This antibody is found on the surface of your B cells. Though its exact function is unclear, experts think that IgD supports B cell maturation and activation.
Found mainly in the skin, lungs and mucus membranes, IgE antibodies cause your mast cells (a type of white blood cell) to release histamine and other chemicals into your bloodstream. IgE antibodies are helpful for fighting off allergic reactions.
This is the most common antibody, making up approximately 70% to 75% of all immunoglobulins in your body. It’s found mainly in blood and tissue fluids. IgG antibodies help protect your body from viral and bacterial infections.
Found in your blood and lymph system, IgM antibodies act as the first line of defense against infections. They also play a large role in immune regulation.
MONOCLONAL VS POLYCLONAL
A. Polyclonal antibodies contain a heterologous mixture of IgGs against the whole antigen
B. monoclonal antibodies are composed of a single IgG against one epitope.
Polyclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies
Refer to a mixture of immunoglobulin molecules that are secreted against a particular antigen.
Refer to a homogenous population of antibodies that are produced by a single clone of plasma B cells.
Produced by different clones of plasma B cells.
Produced by the same clone of plasma B cells.
A heterogeneous antibody population.
A homogenous antibody population.
Interact with different epitopes on the same antigen.
Interact with a particular epitope on the antigen.
STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY
Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins made up of
1. light (L)
2. heavy (H) polypeptide chains.
The terms light and heavy refer to molecular weight
STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY
The simplest antibody molecule has a Y shape consist of
IMMUNOLOGY
This document summarizes key aspects of immunology and the immune system. It discusses the basic components and functions of the immune system, including T cells, B cells, antibodies, and antigens. It also describes multiple myeloma, a type of cancer characterized by overproduction of abnormal antibodies that can cause organ damage. The roles of different antibody classes such as IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE are outlined.
Antibody (immunoglobulin) structures and types
This document summarizes the main types of antibodies (immunoglobulins). It discusses the structure of antibodies, which consist of two heavy chains and two light chains arranged in a Y-shape. Antibodies are classified based on their heavy chain type, with the main types being IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. Each antibody type serves a different function, such as IgG being the most common antibody in serum and IgA providing defense in external secretions like breast milk. In summary, the document outlines the structure of antibodies and classifies the main antibody types while briefly describing their functions in the immune system.
Structure and function of antibody molecules
Porter first proposed the 4-chain antibody model in 1959. Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped proteins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens. There are five main types of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE, which are defined by their heavy chains. Each antibody consists of two light chains and two heavy chains connected by disulfide bonds. The variable region allows antibodies to bind to different antigens, while the constant region defines the antibody class. The five classes have different structures and functions, such as IgM activating the complement system as the first antibody response.
Antibody types and function
The document discusses antibody types and functions. It begins by introducing antibodies as immunoglobulins produced by plasma cells in response to antigens. There are five main antibody isotypes - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which differ based on their heavy chain composition. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in blood and body fluids. IgA represents 15-20% of antibodies and is involved in mucosal immunity. IgM is expressed on B cells and secreted, normally forming polymers. IgD's function is unknown but it may regulate antigen receptors. IgE plays an important role in defending against parasites and is responsible for allergic reactions by triggering granulocyte chemical release.
Structure and function of immunoglobulins
The document discusses three immunoglobulins: IgA, IgM, and IgD. IgA is the predominant immunoglobulin found in exocrine secretions. It has two subclasses, IgA1 and IgA2, which are heavily glycosylated proteins that provide local immunity by protecting epithelial tissues. IgM is the first antibody produced in response to infection. As a pentamer, it is very effective at activating the complement classical pathway. IgD is found in low amounts and its role is to signal B cell activation.
ANTIBODY FINAL.pptx
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped proteins produced by B cells in response to antigens. They have two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains connected by disulfide bonds. There are five classes of heavy chains that determine the antibody class: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. IgG is the most abundant antibody and provides long-term immunity. IgM is the first antibody produced during initial infection. Secretory IgA protects mucosal surfaces. IgE mediates allergic reactions. Monoclonal antibodies are derived from a single clone of B cells and target a specific epitope.
Immunoglobulin classes
This document summarizes the five classes of human immunoglobulins (Igs): IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. It describes the key properties and functions of each Ig class, including their structure, abundance in serum, role in immune responses, and ability to activate complement or cross the placenta. IgG is the most abundant Ig and can cross the placenta to provide immunity to newborns. IgA exists as a monomer in serum but a dimer linked by a joining peptide in secretions to protect mucosal surfaces. IgM is the first antibody produced during a primary immune response.
Antibodies immunoglobulin
The document discusses antibodies and immunoglobulins. It defines antibodies as substances formed in response to antigens that react specifically with antigens. The chemical nature of antibodies is globulin, known as immunoglobulins. An immunoglobulin molecule consists of two heavy chains and two light chains connected by disulfide bonds. The five major classes of immunoglobulins are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE, which have different structures and roles in the body. Abnormal immunoglobulins can occur in conditions like multiple myeloma, heavy chain disease, and cryoglobulinemia.
Antigen structure and immunogenicity
This document discusses the structure and function of antibodies and antigens. It defines key terms like antigen, immunogen, and antibody classes. The main classes of antibodies are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each has a distinct structure and function. For example, IgG is the most common antibody in blood and can enter tissues, while IgA concentrates in body fluids to guard entrances. The document also explains how antibody structure relates to functions like complement activation, opsonization, and placental transfer of maternal antibodies to the fetus.
Immunoglobulins (2)
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that function to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each arm of the Y contains a paratope that binds to a specific epitope on an antigen. There are five classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which differ in their structure and functions like complement fixation, binding to cells, and roles in allergic reactions and parasitic infections. Multiple myeloma is a plasma cell tumor characterized by overproduction of IgG and IgM antibodies and Bence Jones proteins in the serum and urine.
Immunoglobins
This document summarizes the structures and types of immunoglobulins. It discusses the five classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - and their properties, including what percentage of serum each class comprises and their roles in binding antigens, fixing complement, and inducing immune responses. It also covers immunoglobulin subclasses defined by minor amino acid differences, as well as kappa and lambda light chain types.
Immuology
IgM represents about 10-15% of total serum immunoglobulins. It is the first antibody produced during a primary immune response and is responsible for agglutination, viral neutralization, and complement activation. IgM exists as a pentamer with 10 antigen binding sites, making it very efficient at combating pathogens early in the immune response.
IgA represents 15-20% of total circulating immunoglobulins. It exists as a monomer or dimer and is found predominantly in mucosal secretions like tears, sweat, saliva and gastrointestinal tract secretions. Secretory IgA provides local immunity by protecting mucous membranes from invading microorganisms.
IgD represents about 0.25%
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This document summarizes key concepts regarding immunological reactions used for diagnosing infectious diseases. It defines antigens and antibodies, describing their structures, properties, and functions. Antigens are non-self substances that stimulate antibody production, and have properties like foreignness, antigenicity, and specificity. Antibodies are immunoglobulins consisting of light and heavy chains that bind to antigens. The document outlines the five major immunoglobulin classes - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE - and their roles in the immune response. It also describes common serological diagnostic tests like agglutination and indirect hemagglutination that detect antibodies bound to antigens.
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Immunoglobulins ppt.pptx
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune system and immunoglobulins. It describes the immune system's mechanisms for recognizing self from non-self. There are five main classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE - which differ in structure, function, and location. IgG is the most abundant immunoglobulin and provides secondary immune response and antibody-mediated immunity. IgM is the first antibody produced during primary response and fixes complement. IgA provides mucosal immunity through secretions. IgD and IgE have uncertain functions but IgE mediates allergic reactions.
Immunoglobuins & their functions
Immunoglobulins (Igs) or antibodies are proteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to specific antigens. There are five classes of Igs (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE) which have different structures and properties. IgG is the most abundant Ig and provides long-term immunity. IgM is the first antibody produced during initial infection and activates the complement system. IgA is found in secretions and provides immunity at mucosal surfaces. B cells produce antibodies through clonal selection in response to antigens. Antibody binding leads to processes like neutralization, opsonization, and complement activation that help clear pathogens.
Antibodies converted
Antibodies are globulin proteins called immunoglobulins that are produced in response to antigens. There are five classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which have different structures and functions such as protecting blood, mucous membranes, or mediating allergic reactions. Immunoglobulins have light and heavy chains that give them antigen binding sites and allow for different subclasses within each class.
Antibodies
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins called immunoglobulins that are produced by plasma cells in response to antigens. There are five major classes of antibodies - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in serum and body tissues, where it helps protect against bacteria and viruses. IgM is the first antibody produced during a primary immune response and helps activate the complement system. Antibodies are highly specific and help defend the body by binding to pathogens and marking them for destruction by other parts of the immune system.
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Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through
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It describes about Antibodies and their classification.
Thier mode of function and their properties and structure .
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5th immunoglobulins 2 oct 2014
This document summarizes the key features of the five classes of antibodies (immunoglobulins): IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE. It describes their structure (monomer, dimer, pentamer), percentage in serum, locations, half-lives, ability to activate complement, placental transfer, and known functions such as enhancing phagocytosis, neutralizing pathogens, and mediating allergic reactions. IgG is the most abundant antibody and has subclasses with varying abilities to activate complement and bind Fc receptors. IgM is the first antibody produced during infection. IgA provides protection to mucosal surfaces. IgD and IgE have more specialized roles in initiating immune responses and allergies,
antibody types1.pdf
There are five main types of antibodies (immunoglobulins): IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each has a distinct structure and function in the immune system. IgG is the most common antibody and provides long-lasting immunity. IgA is found in secretions and helps prevent pathogens from entering the body. IgM is the largest antibody and acts as the initial defense against infection. IgD assists B cells in antigen recognition. IgE triggers allergic reactions by binding to mast cells.
5 types of Immunoglobulins
There are 5 main types of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. IgA plays a role in mucosal immune function. IgD makes up 1% of proteins on immature B-cells. IgE helps fight parasitic infections. IgG is the most common antibody in blood, representing 75% of serum antibodies. IgM is the first antibody produced in response to new antigens.
What are the products of the secondary metabolism in plants Terpeno.pdf
What are the products of the secondary metabolism in plants? Terpenoids; Phenolic agents;
Flavonoids; Secondary metabolites; Nutraceuticals.
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Which of the following is incorrect about emergent propertiesA. T.pdf
Which of the following is incorrect about emergent properties?
A. They can be inferred just by studying the individual parts.
B. They emerge as individual components organized into complex systems.
C. They result from the way in which individual components interact.
D. They are in part responsible for the complexity of living systems.
Solution
A. They can be inferred just by studying the individual parts. -----> FALSE
B. They emerge as individual components organised into complex systems. ----> TRUE
C. They result from the way in which individual components interact. ------> TRUE
D. They are in part responsible for the complexity of living systems. ---> TRUE
Emergence is a phenomenon in which the complex entities are formed by the interactions among
the simple entities. The properties exhibited by the complex entities are exhibited by the simpler
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Immunoglobulins, complement and immunodefeciency disorders
Immunoglobulins, complement and immunodefeciency disorders
immunoglobuinstheirfunctions-150920084551-lva1-app6892.pdf
immunoglobuinstheirfunctions-150920084551-lva1-app6892.pdf
More from solimankellymattwe60
What are the products of the secondary metabolism in plants Terpeno.pdf
What are the products of the secondary metabolism in plants? Terpenoids; Phenolic agents;
Flavonoids; Secondary metabolites; Nutraceuticals.
Solution
Plant Secondary metabolites have no known primary functions (such as growth, photosynthesis,
reproduction, or other \"primary\" functions).
Which of the following is incorrect about emergent propertiesA. T.pdf
Which of the following is incorrect about emergent properties?
A. They can be inferred just by studying the individual parts.
B. They emerge as individual components organized into complex systems.
C. They result from the way in which individual components interact.
D. They are in part responsible for the complexity of living systems.
Solution
A. They can be inferred just by studying the individual parts. -----> FALSE
B. They emerge as individual components organised into complex systems. ----> TRUE
C. They result from the way in which individual components interact. ------> TRUE
D. They are in part responsible for the complexity of living systems. ---> TRUE
Emergence is a phenomenon in which the complex entities are formed by the interactions among
the simple entities. The properties exhibited by the complex entities are exhibited by the simpler
entities. So, studying all parts of the system is necessary to infer the emergent properties..
Which sensor i can use it for my robot when i dont want it to fil.pdf
Which sensor i can use it for my robot when i dont want it to fill from a stair ???
Which sensor i can use it for my robot when i dont want it to fill from a stair ???
Solution
sol:we should use infrared sensors which should be placed underneath the robot so the it can
detect poniting straight downward (like cliffs,stairs ) so that it will stop at that point..
Why might firms consider issuing stock in foreign countries Why mig.pdf
Why might firms consider issuing stock in foreign countries? Why might U.S. businesses look to
issue more stock in Europe since the adoption of the euro (implemented in 1999)?
Solution
Firms may issue stock in foreign markets when they are concerned that their homemarket may be
unable to absorb the entire issue. In addition, these firms may have foreigncurrency inflows in
the foreign country that can be used to pay dividends on foreign-issued stock.They may also
desire to enhance their global image. Since the euro can be used in severalcountries, firms may
need a large amount of euros if they are expanding across Europe..
What were the Spanish soldiers who fought in the conquests in the Ne.pdf
What were the Spanish soldiers who fought in the conquests in the New World called?
Solution
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores
against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities in the Yucatán Peninsula, a vast limestone
plain covering south-eastern Mexico, northern Guatemala, and all of Belize.
They were called \"conquistadores\".
What is forecasting Explain the different techniques of forecasting.pdf
What is forecasting? Explain the different techniques of forecasting?
Solution
Forecasting is the process of estimating the relevant events of future, based on the analysis of
their past and present behaviour.
Techniques of Forecasting:
There are various methods of forecasting. Some of them are:
1. Historical Analogy Method: Under this method, forecast in regard to a particular situation is
based on some analogous conditions elsewhere in the past. The economic situation of a country
can be predicted by making comparison with the advanced countries at a particular stage through
which the country is presently passing.
2. Survey Method:
Surveys can be conducted to gather information on the intentions of the concerned people.
3. Opinion Poll:
Opinion poll is conducted to assess the opinion of the experienced persons and experts in the
particular field whose views carry a lot of weight.
4. Business Barometers:
A barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. In the same way, index numbers are
used to measure the state of an economy between two or more periods. These index numbers are
the device to study the trends, seasonal fluctuations, cyclical movements, and irregular
fluctuations.
5. Time Series Analysis:
Time series analysis involves decomposition of historical series into its various components, viz.
trend, seasonal variances, cyclical variations, and random variances. When the various
components of a time series are separated, the variation of a particular situation, the subject
under study, can be known over the period of time and projection can be made about the future.
6. Regression Analysis:
Regression analysis is meant to disclose the relative movements of two or more inter-related
series. It is used to estimate the changes in one variable as a result of specified changes in other
variable or variables. In economic and business situations, a number of factors affect a business
activity simultaneously.
7. Input-Output Analysis:
According to this method, a forecast of output is based on given input if relationship between
input and output is known. Similarly, input requirement can be forecast on the basis of final
output with a given input-output relationship. The basis of this technique is that the various
sectors of economy are inter related and such inter-relationships are well-established..
Ventura Capital is a financier who specializes in capitalizing start.pdf
Ventura Capital is a financier who specializes in capitalizing start-up companies. Andy Preneur
is a would-be entrepreneur. He needs capital to start his new business. Andy and Ventura have
been negotiating a potential agreement over the last few months. It seems there is only one item
unresolved. Ventura wants her investment to remain in the company and earn a preferred
dividend of 5 percent, even if Andy no longer needs the money. Andy wants the right to buy out
Ventura’s interest at any time as long as the 5 percent return is paid. Role-play this case with
another person. When you finish, address the following questions. Case Discussion Questions
1.Which of the four key temperaments was most clearly displayed by the other person? Identify
specific comments and behaviors to support your assessment. 2.Which of the four key
temperaments do you think your comments and behaviors most clearly displayed? 3.Do you
agree with each other’s self and other assessments? If not, why do you think you see the
behaviors differently?
Solution
Answer 1. The other person played the role of the financier. The key temparaments displayed by
the Ventura Capital financier were the pragmatist and action seeker. The two temparaments are
justified by the financier only when Andy is in urgent need of funds and there are not many other
options. The financier tried to influence and press upon his demands
Answer 2. The key temparaments displayed by me were the controller and the pacifier. The deal
should not be off and the main demands are met and some compromised. Though i was not ready
give to the option of right to buy back. But still I tries to keep the deal alive.
Answer3. No, we did not agree with each other\'s assessment because the motives were
conflicting. The behaviour were seen by both of us differently because of personality differences.
The other person is bold in nature and has always been a leader and a dominant person. The
assessment also differ because of the role we played. Though most influencial factor of
difference in assessment was the personality traits..
True or False1. A basidium is a cell of the Basidiomycota in whic.pdf
True or False?
1. A basidium is a cell of the Basidiomycota in which karyogamy and meiosis take place
2. Basidiospores are sexual spores that are formed at the tip of the basidium, the cell in which
meiosis took place
3. A basidium is a sporangium that bursts to release many asexual spores
4. The spores produced by a mushroom are sexual spores, and are genetically different from each
other.
Solution
2) true. The basidium are the sexual spores of basidiomycities from which helps in the formation
of new basidiomycities.
1) true. A basidium contains 4 spore cells than 8 and so on which are formed by meosis which
result in the formation of haploid spore..
3) false. Basidium contains sexual spores that are forcibly burst to release the spores in the
environment to give rise to the new basidiomycities.
4) true. It is because in asexual spore production the spores are produced by the same one parents
by mitosis hence identical. But in case of meosis is used hence two different parents hence
genetically different..
The mitochondrial electron transport system (METS) and the photos.pdf
The mitochondrial electron transport system (METS) and the photosynthetic electron transport
system (PETS) are similar in many ways. In what way(s) are they different? If there are two
correct answers, then choose both, otherwise choose \"two correct answers are not provided.\"
Options::
Two correct options are not provided
Electrons are transferred by redox reactions in METS but not in PETS.
PETS has a 1 e- carrier to transfer electrons from PSII to PSI, but METS uses a 2 e- carrier to
transfer electrons from Complex III to Complex IV.
METS is dependent on a source of reducing power obtained from dietary nutrients, whereas
PETS obtains reducing power from light energy and the process of photooxidation.
The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons, but the thylakoid membrane is
permeable to protons.
The electron carriers in METS use only Fe and S centers, whereas the electron carriers in PETS
only use Cu centers.
Chemical energy captured by METS and oxidative phosphorylation is limited to ATP, whereas
PETS and photophosphorylation together capture energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
PETS uses the PQ cycle to translocate protons across the thylakoid membrane, whereas the Q
cycle in METS is used to tether cytochrome c to the inter-membrane space.
Electrons are transferred by redox reactions in METS but not in PETS.
PETS has a 1 e- carrier to transfer electrons from PSII to PSI, but METS uses a 2 e- carrier to
transfer electrons from Complex III to Complex IV.
METS is dependent on a source of reducing power obtained from dietary nutrients, whereas
PETS obtains reducing power from light energy and the process of photooxidation.
The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons, but the thylakoid membrane is
permeable to protons.
The electron carriers in METS use only Fe and S centers, whereas the electron carriers in PETS
only use Cu centers.
Chemical energy captured by METS and oxidative phosphorylation is limited to ATP, whereas
PETS and photophosphorylation together capture energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
PETS uses the PQ cycle to translocate protons across the thylakoid membrane, whereas the Q
cycle in METS is used to tether cytochrome c to the inter-membrane space.
Solution
The two options are true
METS is dependent on a source of reducing power obtained from dietary nutrients, whereas
PETS obtains reducing power from light energy and the process of photooxidation.
Chemical energy captured by METS and oxidative phosphorylation is limited to ATP, whereas
PETS and photophosphorylation together capture energy in the form of ATP and NADPH..
The disclosure of a contingent liability in the footnotes and on t.pdf
The disclosure of a contingent liability in the footnotes and on the balance sheet indicates that the
potential for the application occurring is
The disclosure of a contingent liability in the footnotes and on the balance sheet indicates that the
potential for the application occurring is
Solution
Answer
Contnigent Liability is the potential future obligation but we are not sure that it will occur or not,
so according to IRS we have to report the Contingent liability in the footnotes on the Balance
Sheet.
So the Potential for the application occuring is Possible in the Future..
The application architeture is design by the application developer a.pdf
The application architeture is design by the application developer and dictates hoow the
application is structured over the various end systems. List four predominant architectural
paradigms used in modern network applications?
Solution
a)
The predominant architectural paradigms are:
1)Client-Server architecture
2)P2P architecture
3)Hybrid arcitecture.
Characteristics:
Client-Server architecture:
1)There is an always-on host, called the \"server\", whichservices requests from many other
hosts, called \"clients\".
2)The client-server architecture, clients do not directlycommunicate with each other.
3)Another characteristic of the client-server architecture isthat the server has a fixed, well known
address, called an IPaddress, because the server has a fixed, well-known addressand the server is
always on, then a client canalways contact the server by sending a packet to the server\'saddress
4)Application services that are based on the client-serverarchitecture are oftern infrastructure
intensive, since theyrequire the service providers to purchase, install, and maintainserver farms.
5)The popular services in client-server architectures such assearch engines(e.g.,Google), Internet
commerce (e.g.,Amazon ande-bay) and web based e-mail( e.g, Yahoo mail) etc.
P2P architecture:
1)There is minimal(or no) reliance on always-on infrastructureservers. Instead the application
exploits direct communicationbetween pairs of intermittently connected hoasts, calledpeers.
2)The most compelling features of P2P architectures is theirself-scalability.
3)P2P architectures are also cost effective, since theynormally don\'t require significant server
infrastructure and serverbandwidth.
4)The features of P2P applications are ISP friendly,securityand incentives.
5)Most popular and traffic-intensive applications are based onP2P architectures. It\'s include file
distribution (e.g.BitTorrent), file sharing(e.g. eMule and Lime Wire) and Internettelephony
(e.g.,Skype).etc.
Hybrid architecture:
The combining both client-server and P2P elements. Forexample, for many instant messaging
applications, servers are usedto track the IP addresses of users, but user-to-user messages aresent
directly between user hosts (without passing throughintermediate servers)..
Suppose a company’s ROE is 16. This company’s payout ratio is 40. .pdf
Suppose a company’s ROE is 16%. This company’s payout ratio is 40%. The required rate of
return on the stock is 15%. What is the sustainable growth rate of this company?
Solution
Retention ratio=1-payout ratio
=1-0.4
=0.6
Sustainable growth rate=(ROE*Retention ratio)/[1-(ROE*Retention ratio)]
=(0.16*0.6)/[1-(0.16*0.6)]
which is equal to
=10.62%(Approx)..
Some historians have referred to many of the self-proclaimed “Darwin.pdf
Some historians have referred to many of the self-proclaimed “Darwinians”, such as Ernst
Haeckel, that followed in Darwin’s footsteps at the end of the 19th century as “pseudo-
Darwinians”. In what sense were they Darwinian? In what sense were they not Darwinian?
Most evolutionary scientists would agree that evolution has led to increased complexity of life on
Earth.
Select one:
True
False
Rice has a genome size of about 420-460 million base pairs while humans have a genome size of
about 3 billion base pairs. Of the following, which is a possible reason for this difference?
Select one:
a. Humans are more complex morphologically.
b. Rice is a plant, while humans are animals.
c. Humans have more genes than rice.
d. The human genome has a lot of mobile genetic elements.
e. The vertebrate lineage has a longer evolutionary history.
Solution
Answer A)Darwin\'s theory is based on natural selection and the servival of fittest.
According to the theory the characteristics which are best fitted transfer to the next progeny.
Living animal compete for food ,shelter and basic requirements for their survival, dominant wins
the competition and get selected by nature to reproduce.
Acquired characters of a species throughout its lifetime pass to its progeny through genetic
material.Thus over a period of time due to accumulation of characteristics a new species evolve.
Darwin\'s could not account for either mechanism for trait (character) transmission or the basis
of variability among individual.
Hence new modified theory given by a group of scientist which is called psuedo Darwinian
theory.
This theory is support Darwin s view on transmission acquired characters to next generation. But
all acquired characters do not pass to next generation only useful character transmite to next
generation.
It supports the natural selection theory too.
Points support Darwin theory-
1)Naturally selected animals are able to reproduce and transmit Acquired character to next
generation.
2)Survival of fittest
3) acquired characters transfer through genetic material.
Points of psuedo Darwinian theory not support Darwin theory-
1) All acquired characters do not transmit to next generation only useful character transmite.
2) Genes for the useful character can transfer trait if present in genital pole.
3)Human races are separate species which is rejected by Darwin.
4) Language evolve from speachless pre human.which is not mentioned in Darwin theory.
Answer 2)
E) The vertibrate lineage has a longer evolutionary history.
Vertibrates evolve from their ancestors contain large number of genes and thus large size of
genome because throughout the evolutionary period many characters are acquired in terms of
separate gene. More gene results in more complex structure ..
Please research Meaningful Use. Prepare a brief report on its origin.pdf
Please research Meaningful Use. Prepare a brief report on its origin, its purpose, how it is
conducted, etc. Please make sure you understand and explain the three different stages.
Solution
Meaningful Use(MU)
Purpose: The concept of meaningful use rested on the \'5 pillars\' of health outcomes policy
priorities, namely:
->Improving quality, safety, efficiency, and reducing health disparities
->Engage patients and families in their health
->Improve care coordination
->Improve population and public health
->Ensure adequate privacy and security protection for personal health information
Origin:
The American Reinvestment & Recovery Act (ARRA) was enacted on February 17, 2009.
ARRA includes many measures to modernize our nation\'s infrastructure,
one of which is the \"Health Information Technology for Economic and
Clinical Health (HITECH) Act\". The HITECH Act supports the concept of
electronic health records - meaningful use [EHR-MU], an effort led by
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS ) and the Office of the
National Coordinator for Health IT (ONC). HITECH proposes the meaningful
use of interoperable electronic health records throughout the United States
health care delivery system as a critical national goal. Meaningful Use is
defined by the use of certified EHR technology in a meaningful manner
(for example electronic prescribing); ensuring that the certified EHR
technology is connected in a manner that provides for the electronic
exchange of health information to improve the quality of care; and that
in using certified EHR technology the provider must submit to the Secretary
of Health & Human Services (HHS) information on quality of care and other measures.
How its conducted:
As in order to encourage widespread EHR adoption, promote innovation and to avoid
imposing excessive burden on healthcare providers, meaningful use was showcased
as a phased approach, which is divided into three stages which span 2011
(data capture and sharing), 2013 (advanced clinical processes) and 2015
(improved outcomes). The incentive payments range from $44,000 over 5 years
for the Medicare providers and $63,750 over 6 years for Medicaid providers
(starting in 2011). Participation in the CMS EHR incentive program is totally
voluntary, however if EPs or EHs fail to join in by 2015, there will be negative
adjustments to their Medicare/Medicaid fees starting at 1% reduction and escalating
to 3% reduction by 2017 and beyond.
The CDC currently offers several types of technical assistance to state and
local health departments related to Meaningful Use, including:
->Meaningful Use Public Health Technical Assistance Team - To request assistance
from this team, email meaningfuluse@cdc.gov with “Request for Technical Assistance”
in the Subject line.The CDC National Program of Cancer Registries provides support
and tools for cancer registries. For more info visit its official website
->The CDC Immunization Information Systems Support Branch (IISSB) provides technic.
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring rel.pdf
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring related to heat transfer in
external flow as opposed to internal flow.
Solution
Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate ofheat
transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the intervening
medium through which the heat is transferred. The three fundamental modes of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation.
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and
molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy
(heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive.Thermal contact conductance
is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.
Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume),
thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called \"natural convection\". All
convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is
forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the
movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example)
between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in
liquids and gases.
In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be
considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by
convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to
its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its
driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large
temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong..
My code is not matching up with the results.The output for the cod.pdf
My code is not matching up with the results.
The output for the code should be:
>>> Test Teacher class
Teacher: Paul Tan(8 sunset way)
IM101 added.
IM102 added.
IM101 cannot be added.
IM101 removed.
IM101 removed.
IM102 removed.
IM102 cannot be removed.
Person class:
public class Person {
private String name;
private String address;
public Person(String name, String address) {
this.name = name;
this.address = address;
}
public Person(String address){
this.address = address;
}
public String getName(){
return name;
}
public String getAddress(){
return address;
}
public void setAddress(String address){
this.address = address;
}
public String toString() {
return name + \"(\" + address + \")\";
}
}
Teacher sub class
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class Teacher extends Person {
private int numCourses = 0;
private ArrayList courses = new ArrayList();
public Teacher(String name, String address){
super(name,address);
}
@Override
public String toString() {
return \"Teacher: \" + super.toString();
}
public boolean addCourse (String course){
for (int i = 0; i < numCourses; i++) {
if (courses.get(i).equals(course))
return false;
}
courses.add(course);
numCourses++;
return true;
}
public boolean removeCourse (String course){
boolean found = false;
int courseIndex = -1;
for (int j = 0; j < numCourses; j++) {
if (courses.get(j).equals(course)) {
courseIndex = j;
found = true;
break;
}
}
if (found) {
for (int k = courseIndex; k < numCourses-1; k++) {
courses.get(k+1);
}
numCourses--;
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
}
Person Launcer
System.out.println(\"\ \");
System.out.println(\">>> Test Teacher class\");
Teacher tch = new Teacher (\"Paul Tan\", \"8 sunset way\");
System.out.println(tch);
String[] courses = {\"IM101\", \"IM102\", \"IM101\"};
for (String course: courses) {
if (tch.addCourse(course)) {
System.out.println(course + \" added.\");
} else {
System.out.println(course + \" cannot be added.\");
}
}
for (String course: courses) {
if (tch.removeCourse(course)) {
System.out.println(course + \" removed.\");
} else {
System.out.println(course + \" cannot be removed.\");
}
}
System.out.println(\"\ \");
Solution
// edit the below method like this :
public boolean removeCourse (String course){
boolean found = false;
int courseIndex = -1;
for (int j = 0; j < numCourses; j++) {
if (courses.get(j).equals(course)) {
courseIndex = j;
found = true;
break;
}
}
if (found) {
courses.remove(course);
numCourses--;
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}.
Logical FallociesP1 All college students have pet monkeys.P2 J.pdf
Logical Fallocies
P1: All college students have pet monkeys.
P2: Janice is a college student.
C: Janice has a pet monkey.
Valid and Sound
Valid but not Sound
Not Valid, but Sound
Not Valid, Not Sound.
The answer Valid and Sound was found the be the wrong answer. Please give correct answer.
and reason why.
Solution
Based on the premise that all college students have pet monkeys , as Janice is a college student,
must have a pet monkey is valid , but it is unlikely , so the correct answer is VALID BUT NOT
SOUND..
IP Security One problem with Internet protocol (IP) is that it has.pdf
IP Security
One problem with Internet protocol (IP) is that it has no method for confirming the authenticity
and security of data as it moves through the net. IP datagrams are typically routed between
devices over disparate networks; as a result, information within these datagrams could be
intercepted and altered. As use of the Internet for critical applications has increased, the need for
enhancements to IP security became necessary. As a result, the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) created a set of protocols called IP Security, or IPsec, to support the secure exchange of
packets over the Internet. IPsec is now a mandatory component of IPv6 and must be supported
for any IPv6 implementation. IPsec is implemented in IPv6 using the authentication header (AH)
and the encapsulating security payload (ESP) extension header.
Answer the following questions in a 3- to 4-page, APA-formatted paper:
1 What is IPsec, and why is it necessary? How is IPsec used in VPN?
2 Which network layer currently suffers from attacks, and why? At which layers of the
network stack architecture should a solution be attempted? Provide details.
3 How is IP security achieved? What is the basic authentication scheme? Which mechanisms
are used? What are some of the application venues of IPsec?
4 How is a VPN implemented on a server so that its clients can connect to it?
Remember to properly cite your sources according to APA guidelines.
Solution
IPSec
IPsec also known as IP Security.Internet Protocol Security is a framework for a set of protocols
that provide security for internet protocol. It can use cryptography to provide security. IPsec
support network level data integrity, data confidentiality. As it is integrated at the internet layer
(i.e. layer 3), it provides security for all the protocols in the TCP/IP. IPsec applied transparently
to the applications, there is no need to configure separate security for each application the uses
TCP/IP.
IPsec provides security for
IPsec provides two choices of security service: Authentication Header (AH), which essentially
allows authentication of the sender of data, and Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP), which
supports both authentication of the sender and encryption of data as well. The specific
information associated with each of these services is inserted into the packet in a header that
follows the IP packet header. Separate key protocols can be selected, such as the
ISAKMP/Oakley protocol.
IPsec is necessary for
Earlier security approaches have inserted security at the Application layer of the communications
model. IPsec is said to be especially useful for implementing virtual private networks and for
remote user access through dial-up connection to private networks. A big advantage of IPsec is
that security arrangements can be handled without requiring changes to individual user
computers. Cisco has been a leader in proposing IPsec as a standard (or combination of standards
and technologies) and has included support fo.
Genmo CorporationOn the night of February 27, 2012, certain recor.pdf
Genmo Corporation*
On the night of February 27, 2012, certain records of the Genmo Corporation were accidentally
destroyed by fire. Two days after that the principal owner had an appointment with an investor to
discuss the possible sale of the company. The owner needed as much information as could be
gathered for this purpose, recognizing that over a longer period of time a more complete
reconstruction would be possible.
On the morning of February 28, the following were available: (1) A balance sheet as of
December 31, 2010, and an income statement for 2010 (Exhibit 1) and (2) certain fragmentary
data and ratios that had been calculated from the current financial statements (Exhibit 2). The
statements themselves had been destroyed in the fire. (In ratios involving balance sheet amounts,
Genmo used yearend amounts rather than an average.) And (3) the following data (in thousands):
2011 revenues.............................................................. $10,281
Current liabilities, December 31, 2011 ......................... 2,285
EXHIBIT 1 Genmo Corporation Financial Statements
(thousands of dollars)
BALANCE SHEET
As of December 31, 2010
Assets
Current assets: Cash................................................................ $ 18
Marketable securities..................................... 494
Accounts receivable...................................... 728
Inventories...................................................... 972
Prepaid expenses........................................... 214
Total current assets..................................... 2,426
Investments……………………………………………. 898
Real estate, plant, and equipment........................... $4,727
Less: Accumulated depreciation..................... 2,433 2,294
Special tools............................................................. 171
Goodwill................................................................... 594
Total assets.............................................................. $6,383
Liabilities and Shareholders’ Equity
Current liabilities: Accounts payable............................................. $ 732
Loans payable.................................................. 266
Accrued liabilities.............................................. 1,232
Total current liabilities............................. 2,230
Long-term debt.......................................................... 250
Other noncurrent liabilities......................................... 951
Total liabilities............................................................ 3,431
Shareholders’ equity: Preferred stock................................................. 25
Common stock................................................. 54
Additional paid-in capital.................................. 667
Retained earnings............................................ 2,206
Total shareholders’ equity....................... 2,952
Total liabilities and shareholders’ equity.................... $6,383
Income Statement, 2010
Total revenu.
In the formula for determining a populations genotype frequencies, .pdf
In the formula for determining a population\'s genotype frequencies, the pq in the term 2pq is
necessary because the population is diploid. heterozygotes can come about in two ways. the
population is doubling in number. heterozygotes have two alleles. What is the founder effect? a
selection of the best-suited traits for the environment a series of chance events that change allele
frequency when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population, and their gene pool
differs from that source population a sudden change in the environment that reduces the size of
the population Which of the following activities occurs first in order to begin speciation? single
gene change formation of mechanical barrier to reproduction postzygotic hybrid sterility in
Drosophila interruption of gene flow between two populations A genetic change that caused a
certain Hox gene to be expressed along the tip of a vertebrate limb bud instead of farther back
helped make possible the evolution of the tetrapod limb. This type of change is illustrative of the
influence of environment on development. paedomorphosis. A change in a developmental gene
or in its regulation that altered the spatial organization of body parts. heterochrony. Which of
the following statements about dinoflagellates is true? They possess two flagella. All known
varieties are autotrophic. Their walls are usually composed of silica plates. Many types lack
mitochondria. Their dead cells accumulate on the seafloor and are mined to serve as a filtering
material.
Solution
Ans. 6: pq in the term 2pq is necessary because heterozygoted have two alleles, hence option D
is correct.
Ans. 7: Founder\'s effect is when few individuals separate from large population and their gene
pool differs from source population. Hence option C is correct.
Ans. 8: interruption of gene flow between two population is first step for speciation hence option
D is correct.
Ans. 9: the given process is best explained by option C.
Ans. 10: option E is more correct amongst the given options..
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