This document provides information on pediatric diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM). It discusses the epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of type 1 DM. Key points include that type 1 DM results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, it commonly presents in childhood, and treatment involves insulin replacement and blood glucose monitoring to prevent acute complications like diabetic ketoacidosis.
This presentation was done by Dr. Julius P. Kessy,MD. An intern Doctor at Dodoma Regional Referral Hospital (DRRH) during pediatrics unit clinical meeting and supervised by Dr. Christina K. Galabawa,MD,Mmed2, Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Dodoma (UDOM) in November, 2017.
Wilms tumor (also called Wilms' tumor or nephroblastoma) is a type of childhood cancer that starts in the kidneys. It is the most common type of kidney cancer in children. About 9 of 10 kidney cancers in children are Wilms tumors.
This presentation was done by Dr. Julius P. Kessy,MD. An intern Doctor at Dodoma Regional Referral Hospital (DRRH) during pediatrics unit clinical meeting and supervised by Dr. Christina K. Galabawa,MD,Mmed2, Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Dodoma (UDOM) in November, 2017.
Wilms tumor (also called Wilms' tumor or nephroblastoma) is a type of childhood cancer that starts in the kidneys. It is the most common type of kidney cancer in children. About 9 of 10 kidney cancers in children are Wilms tumors.
Every year more than 10 million children die in developing countries due to acute respiratory infections (mostly pneumonia), diarrhea, measles, malaria, or malnutrition - and often to a combination of these illnesses. In 1990s, the WHO, in collaboration with UNICEF and many other agencies, institutions and individuals, responded to this challenge by developing a strategy known as the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMNCI).This strategy adopted in India as Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness (IMNCI). IMNCI caters to two groups of children
• 0-2 months, referred to as young infants.
• 2 months to 5 years, referred to as children.
Type 1 diabetes in children is a condition in which your child's pancreas no longer produces the insulin your child needs to survive, and you'll need to replace the missing insulin. Type 1 diabetes in children used to be known as juvenile diabetes.
Every year more than 10 million children die in developing countries due to acute respiratory infections (mostly pneumonia), diarrhea, measles, malaria, or malnutrition - and often to a combination of these illnesses. In 1990s, the WHO, in collaboration with UNICEF and many other agencies, institutions and individuals, responded to this challenge by developing a strategy known as the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMNCI).This strategy adopted in India as Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness (IMNCI). IMNCI caters to two groups of children
• 0-2 months, referred to as young infants.
• 2 months to 5 years, referred to as children.
Type 1 diabetes in children is a condition in which your child's pancreas no longer produces the insulin your child needs to survive, and you'll need to replace the missing insulin. Type 1 diabetes in children used to be known as juvenile diabetes.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease caused by deficiency or diminished effectiveness of endogenous insulin. It is characterised by hyperglycaemia, deranged metabolism and sequelae predominantly affecting the vasculature.
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3. Introduction
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic syndrome
having hyperglycemia as a cardinal biochemical feature.
There are two major types: Type – I and Type – II.
Type-I DM: Common endocrine-metabolic disorder of
childhood, caused by insulin deficiency due to damage to
pancreatic β-cells.
Type-II DM: Due to insulin resistance at the level of a
skeletal muscles, liver, and adipose tissue.
Morbidity and mortality from DM is related to acute and
long term complications.
Other types include: Gestational DM, Neonatal DM,
Maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY).
3
4. Type-I Vs. Type-II DM: Differentiation
Demographics Type-I DM Type-II DM
Family History 3-5% 74-100%
Age Variable >10 years / Pubertal
Gender Male = Female Female > Male
Asymptomatic
Presentation Rare Common
BMI at Diagnosis < /=75 percentile >/= 85 percentile
Autoimmune
markers Common Uncommon
4
5. Epidemiology (Type-I DM)
It accounts for 10% of all diabetes.
Most cases of diabetes in children is type-I.
(This presentation focuses on type-I Diabetes)
However, it is not limited to children; 50% of individuals
with Type-I DM present as adults.
The incidence is currently on the rise.
Globally 400,000 total new cases of type-I diabetes
occur annually in all children under age 14 years.
5
6. Etiologic Factors (Type-I DM)
Type-I DM is characterized by autoimmune-mediated destruction
of pancreatic beta cells culminating in absolute insulin deficiency.
Diabetes develops as a result of an interplay between
both genetics and the environment.
1) Genetics: Evidences
Prevalence in siblings is 6% compared to 0.4% in the
general population.
Risk increases when parents have diabetes.
Concordance rate among monozygotic twins is 30-65%.
However majority of patients with type-I DM do not have
family member with the disease (85%), so family
history alone is not a reliable tool to identify those at
risk of future diabetes.
6
7. Etiologic Factors (Type-I DM)
2) The environment: several observations support the role
of the environment in the development of type-I DM:
50% monozygotic twins are discordant for type-I DM.
Variation in incidence between urban and rural areas
populated by the sane ethnic group.
Change in incidence that occurs with migration(see later).
Occurrence of seasonality
7
8. Etiologic Factors (Type-I DM)
The rate in Puerto Rico,17.4, is similar to that in Pennsylvania, but
the rate in neighboring and ethnically similar Cuba is only 2.9.
Israeli children living in Canada have a fourfold greater incidence
than those in Israel.
Where T1DM in the Indian population is very low, Indian children
migrating to England from South Africa developed incidence rates
comparable with those of English children in the community.
Japanese living in Hawaii are five times more likely to have T1DM
than those in Japan.
Ethnic French and Italian children in Montreal have twice the
incidence of diabetes as those in their native lands.
Factors like viral infections, diet, & stressors are believed to play a
role in the causation of type-I DM.
8
9. Pathogenesis & Pathophysiology (Type-I DM)
In type-I DM, a genetically susceptible host develops
autoimmunity to pancreatic β cells. What triggers this
autoimmunity is unknown.
The natural history goes through the following events:
1) Initiation of autoimmunity: most occur before 2 years
of age, with presence of multiple autoantibodies. This
gap between appearance of antibodies & development
of the disease may offer an opportunity for prevention.
2) Preclinical autoimmunity with progressive β cell loss.
3) Onset of clinical disease: time of onset depends on the
number of autoantibodies, genetics, & environment.
4) Transient remission: Honeymoon period
5) Established disease
6) Development of complications.
9
10. Pathogenesis & Pathophysiology (Type-I DM)
Pathophysiology:
Insulin plays a major role in energy utilization by cells.
Post prandial its level rises for energy storage (anabolic)
and its level should drop during fasting state to mobilize
stored energy for use (catabolic).
Type-I DM is a progressive low insulin catabolic state.
With insulinopenia, glucose use by muscle & adipose
tissue decreases; plus glucose production by the liver via
glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis increases, both leading
to hyperglycemia.
Hyperglycemia causes osmotic diuresis with loss of
calories, electrolytes → dehydration& physiologic stress.
Secretion of stress hormones then follow.
10
11. Pathogenesis & Pathophysiology (Type-I DM)
Pathophysiology: (Cont.)
The stress hormones then, decompensate the metabolic
process further:
1)Impair insulin secretion- Epinephrine
2)Antagonize insulin action – Epinephrine, Cortisol, GH.
3)Promote glucose production, lipolysis, and ketogenesis
– Glucagon, Epinephrine, Cortisol, Growth hormone.
4)Decrease glucose utilization & clearance- Epinephrine,
Cortisol, and Growth hormone (GH).
Insulin depletion coupled with glucagon excess leads to
further lipolysis and accumulation of free fatty acids
which is shunted towards production of ketone bodies →
METABOLIC ACIDOSIS.
11
12. Clinical Presentation (Type-I DM)
The clinical picture correlates with progressive loss of β
cells.
Polyuria develops with further loss of the cells.
Nocturia
Compensatory polydipsia and polyphagia then occurs.
Weight loss follows when the dietary intake can not
cope with urinary calorie loss.
With extremely low insulin level ketoacids accumulate
and patient develop diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
About 20-40% of patients with type-I DM present with
DKA for the first time.
12
13. Diagnosis (Type-I DM)
The diagnosis of DM is usually straight forward.
Presence of poly-symptoms, with dehydration and weight
loss suggests the possibility of diabetes.
Diagnostic criteria:
1)Impaired Glucose tolerance (IGT): Fasting blood sugar
(FBS) 100-125mg/dL, or 2hour plasma glucose during
OGTT > 140mg/dL and < 200mg/dL.
2)Diabetes Mellitus: Symptoms of diabetes plus:
Random blood sugar (RBS) > 200mg/dL, or
Fasting blood sugar (FBS) > 126mg/dL or
2hour plasma glucose during OGTT > 200mg/dL.
NB: DKA must be looked for once diagnosis of DM is made.
OGTT: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test
13
14. Treatment (Type-I DM)
Type of therapy depends on the patients initial clinical
presentation and whether DKA has occurred or not.
Hence two groups of patients:
1) Patients with ketotic onset
2) Patients without ketosis on presentation.
Principles of therapy:
Insulin replacement
Life style modification
Regular follow up to assess glycemic control and look
for complications.
14
15. Treatment (Type-I DM): Insulin
1) Children with non ketotic onset: 60-80% of cases.
These children have moderate symptoms, no/minimal
dehydration, and not yet progressed to DKA.
The insulin dose required depends on pubertal status,
but needs to be manipulated based on glycemic control.
The usual requirement is 0.7IU/Kg/day (Pre-pubertal),
1IU/Kg/day (Pubertal) & 1.2IU/Kg/day(Post-pubertal).
Therapy may be started with 60-70% of the above dose
and adjusted as needed.
Frequent blood sugar check needs to be done
especially during first few weeks, to adjust insulin
dosage.
Self blood sugar monitoring is particularly helpful and
this must be thought to the patient as part of care.
15
16. Treatment (Type-I DM): Insulin
2) Children with DKA:
a)Those presenting with DKA for the 1st time: treatment
is transitioned to that described for those with non ketotic
onset once DKA has resolved.
b)Those with history of DM developing DKA: these will be
put on their previous insulin regimen used before the
onset of DKA after resolution of the DKA.
16
17. Treatment (Type-I DM): Diet
There is no much special dietary arrangement for the
diabetic child; however, the following points need to be
taken in to consideration:
The caloric mixture should comprise approximately 55%
carbohydrate, 30% fat, and 15% protein.
70% of the carbohydrate content should be derived from
complex carbohydrates such as starch.
Sucrose, highly refined sugars, & carbonated beverages
should be limited. These are absorbed rapidly & cause
wide swings in metabolic pattern.
17
18. Treatment (Type-I DM): Exercise
No form of exercise should be prohibited for the diabetic
child, but the following care needs to be taken:
For patients with poor glycemic control, vigorous exercise may
precipitate DKA.
When planning a vigorous exercise additional carbohydrate need to
be taken, and glucose from such sources as juice must be made
available during and after the exercise.
Watch for delayed hypoglycemia several hours after the exercise.
On the other hand regular exercise has a beneficial effect
on glycemic control by increasing the number of insulin
receptors, and therefore it has to be encouraged.
18
19. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
INTRODUCTION:DKA
A common and life threatening medical emergency in
patients with type I diabetes.
May be an initial presentation of DM in a child in 20 –
40% of the time; for adults it is mostly a complication of
established diabetes.
Absolute/relative insulin deficiency resulting in
hyperglycemia, dehydration and accumulation of ketone
bodies in the blood with subsequent metabolic acidosis
(pH < 7.30; serum bicarbonate < 15 mmol/L). 19
20. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Biochemical triad: ketonemia, hyperglycemia,
and acidemia.
One in 100 children with DKA dies in the USA.
The severe the DKA, the higher the mortality and
complications.
Severity is defined by venous blood PH:
Mild DKA: PH 7.25 – 7.35
Moderate DKA: PH 7.15 – 7.25
Severe DKA: PH < 7.15 (Requires Intensive Care Rx)
20
21. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Causes/Precipitating factors:
Initial presentation of type I diabetes mellitus (Delay in
diagnosis of DKA in a young child with no history of
diabetes)
Missed insulin injections
Inadequate insulin dosage in a known diabetic patient
Stress: Emotional, trauma, surgery without adequate
insulin adjustment.
Intercurrent illness/infection without proper insulin
adjustment.
21
22. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Risk Factors:
Low socioeconomic status/Less education
Poorly controlled diabetes
Previous history of DKA
Peripubertal ages and adolescents
Psychiatric illness
Unstable family dynamics
Use of insulin pump therapy
22
23. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Pathophysiology of DKA:
A relative / absolute insulin deficiency is the factor.
Insulin helps move glucose in to cells as a source of
energy. In its absence body goes in to a catabolic state
with breakdown of glycogen, protein, and fat in muscle,
liver, and adipose tissue.
Counter regulatory hormones stimulate glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis, proteolysis, lipolysis, and ketogenesis in
an attempt to provide more fuel to cells.
Brain which consumes 20 % of body’s metabolic need
cannot use fatty acids as energy, and depends on ketones
produced by hepatic oxidation of fatty acids stimulated
by glucagon.
23
24. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Hall Marks of DKA:
Metabolic acidosis: caused by elevated plasma
concentrations of the ketoacids acetoacetate and beta-
hydroxy butyrate. Lactic acidosis occurs in large part
from anaerobic glycolysis in hypoperfused tissues
secondary to hypovolemia from osmotic diuresis.
Hyperosmolality: in DKA, glucose is elevated about 400
mg/dL above normal, and the BUN is elevated by about
15 mg/dL. These elevations result in an additional
osmolar load of about 22 and 5 mOsm/L, respectively.
24
25. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Hall Marks of DKA… Cont.
Dehydration: secondary to osmotic diuresis and glycosuria. May
progress to hypovolemic shock.
Electrolyte disturbance:
Hyponatremia: may be an artifact due to shift of water to ECF
secondary to hyperglycemia. Correct true value by adding 2.8 mEq/L to
obtained value for every 100mg/dL increase in serum glucose.
Potassium: Initially, artificially elevated b/c during acidosis, K+ is
exchanged for H+I (Intracellular K+ moves to ECF) Patients are
usually total body K+ depleted and serum K+ levels will drop rapidly
with correction of acidosis. Best way to confirm is to see U wave and
flat T wave on ECG.
Hypophosphatemia: due to osmotic diuresis.
25
27. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of DKA is established biochemically as:
A venous pH <7.3 or
Serum bicarbonate concentration <15 mmol/L,
Serum glucose concentration >200 mg/dL
together with ketonemia, glucosuria, & Ketonuria and
associated clinical features.
27
28. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Work Up:
Blood sugar
Urine ketones
Serum electrolytes
CBC and infection screen
BUN and Creatinine
Imaging studies guided by clinical scenario
Venous blood PH
28
29. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
PRINCIPLES OF THERAPY:
1) Maintain ABC of life
2) Correct Dehydration: Fluids & Electrolytes
3) Correct hyperglycemia: Insulin
4) Address any precipitating factor, if identified.
5) Prevent future recurrence: Patient education.
29
30. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
ABC of Life:
Assess air way, breathing and circulation.
Patients with GCS < 8 may need intubation to secure
air way and prevent aspiration.
Gastric decompression (NGT) to reduce risk of
aspiration.
Administer oxygen if patient is in shock or low oxygen
saturation.
30
31. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
FLUID THERAPY:
Critical part of treating patients with DKA.
The presence of even mild form of dehydration indicates
at least 3L of fluid has been lost !!
Give 10 – 20mL/Kg in the 1st hour; then replace deficit of
8.5% body weight and maintenance over next 23 hours.
Fluid type: NS / RL until blood sugar reaches 200mg/dL
when glucose containing fluid should be used.
ELECTROLYTE:
Potassium is the major concern.
Should be started after initial fluid bolus and before
commencing insulin therapy.
Add 20 – 40 mEq/L of KCL to each bag of fluid if serum
31
32. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
HYPERGLYCEMIA:
Goal: to reduce blood sugar at 70 – 100 mg/dL/hr.
The optimal administration of insulin is through insulin
infuser at 0.1 IU/Kg/Hr. Continue insulin infusion until
resolution of DKA (pH > 7.30, bicarbonate > 15 mEq/L), which
usually takes longer than normalization of blood glucose level.
Dose: Mix 50 IU of insulin in 50mL NS, and run at
0.1mL/Kg/Hr = 1mL per hour for a 10 Kg child.
In our setting, short of infuser we use the older system of
4hourly insulin based on blood sugar level: >600mg/dL –
1IU/Kg, 300 – 600mg/dL – 0.5IU/Kg, 180 – 300mg/dL –
0.25IU/Kg, No insulin when blood sugar is less than
180mg/dL.
32
33. Acute Complication of DM:DKA
Complication of DKA:
Cerebral edema is a feared complication, specially
related with therapy.
Mechanism not well known, may be osmotic or
vasogenic.
Avail mannitol at the bed side in every critically sick
DKA patient under therapy.
Consider intubation and mechanical ventilation
Alternative: hypertonic saline(3%) 5-10mL/Kg over 30
min can be used.
33
34. Chronic Complications of DM
The development of these complications depend on the
extent of glycemic control, duration of diabetes and
genetics.
How well the glycemic control has been is measured by
the level of glycosylated hemoglobin. HbA1c represents
the fraction of hemoglobin to which glucose has been
non enzymatically attached.
HbA1c values of 6-7.9% represent good control, values
of 8.0-9.9%, fair control, and values of 10% or higher,
poor control.
HbA1c measurement reflects glucose level of preceding
2-3 months.
It has to be measured 3-4 times per year.
34
35. Chronic Complications of DM
There are three major categories of chronic complications
of DM:
1)Microvascular: Retinopathy, Nephropathy
2)Macrovascular: Coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular
disease, & peripheral vascular disease.
3)Neuropathies: Peripheral and autonomic.
35
36. Chronic Complications of DM
Pathogenesis of microvascular complications: several
mechanisms have been proposed:
Protein glycation: glucose binds irreversibly to proteins
(collagens) by non enzymatic means, giving advanced
glycation end products(AGE). The AGE accumulates in
vascular intracellular proteins &cause structural tissue
alterations with progressive occlusion of blood vessels.
Example: Binding to Hemoglobin, Renal basement membrane.
Polyol pathway: Sorbitol is formed from glucose by an
enzyme aldose reductase. High sorbitol level in tissues
(lens, nerves) causes and increased pressure & leakage in
blood vessels → decreased vessel wall elasticity and
microvascular hypertension, leading to local ischemia.
36
37. Diabetic Health Education
Should address the following issues:
Adherence to therapy & proper dosing.
Self injection techniques & injection site care.
Appropriate drug storage.
Symptoms of hypoglycemia.
Dietary management.
Regular exercise & caution with vigorous exercise.
Need for regular follow up & hygiene (oral, foot,…)
Self blood sugar monitoring & interpretation of results.
Awareness & avoidance of precipitating factors of DKA.
Psychosocial support & counseling.
37