This presentation by Jonathan Ali, a PhD student at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, was presented at the Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute’s Research Forum on Thursday, May 11, 2017. Jonathan is a 2016-2017 student support grantee of the Institute.
Bacteriological Investigation of Well Water Samples from Selected Market Loca...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on the Microbial Load of Waste Water Sample...IJEAB
Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence which can serve as habitat for pathogenic microbes and can constitute to health hazard of the populace. The present study was designed to enumerate and identify microorganisms in wastewaters and to investigate the effect of Electromagnetic Field (EMF) on the populations and identities of bacteria in the wastewaters from selected industries in Akure Metropolis. Wastewater samples were collected from two different industries in Akure Metropolis. The waste water samples were subjected to microbiological analyses before and after exposure to Electromagnetic field (EMF) at 1150nT, 1310nT, 3000nT, 5000nT. The presence of some bacteria in the waste water collected from different companies showed their occurrence at different hours during the treatment of the wastewater sample with different EMF strength. It was observed that at the early part (hours) of the experiment the heavy presence of microbes were seen but as the experiment progresses the microbial population were observed been reduced. It is therefore recommended that wastewater from industries should be treated with EMF before discharging them to the other water bodies so as to avoid contamination. This will help reduce microbial population that constitute a serious hazard to public health. And could also help protect other life forms inhabiting the water body and thus guard against ecological imbalance of the microbiota.
This presentation by Jonathan Ali, a PhD student at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, was presented at the Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute’s Research Forum on Thursday, May 11, 2017. Jonathan is a 2016-2017 student support grantee of the Institute.
Bacteriological Investigation of Well Water Samples from Selected Market Loca...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on the Microbial Load of Waste Water Sample...IJEAB
Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence which can serve as habitat for pathogenic microbes and can constitute to health hazard of the populace. The present study was designed to enumerate and identify microorganisms in wastewaters and to investigate the effect of Electromagnetic Field (EMF) on the populations and identities of bacteria in the wastewaters from selected industries in Akure Metropolis. Wastewater samples were collected from two different industries in Akure Metropolis. The waste water samples were subjected to microbiological analyses before and after exposure to Electromagnetic field (EMF) at 1150nT, 1310nT, 3000nT, 5000nT. The presence of some bacteria in the waste water collected from different companies showed their occurrence at different hours during the treatment of the wastewater sample with different EMF strength. It was observed that at the early part (hours) of the experiment the heavy presence of microbes were seen but as the experiment progresses the microbial population were observed been reduced. It is therefore recommended that wastewater from industries should be treated with EMF before discharging them to the other water bodies so as to avoid contamination. This will help reduce microbial population that constitute a serious hazard to public health. And could also help protect other life forms inhabiting the water body and thus guard against ecological imbalance of the microbiota.
An Assessment on Drinking Water Quality and Management in Kakamega Municipalitypaperpublications3
Abstract: Drinking water must be free from components which may adversely affect the human health. Such components include minerals, organic substances and disease causing microorganisms. A large portion of the population in urban areas in developing countries suffers from health problems associated with either lack of drinking water or due to the presence of microbiological contamination in water. This research was conducted in Kakamega municipality with a broad objective to conduct assessment of water quality and management in Kakamega municipality. The Specific objective was to determine the chemical water quality parameters in water and to evaluate the management practices on water in Kakamega municipality. Four water quality parameters; two physical and two chemical were tested from the samples collected for this research work. Sampling technique was purposive where water samples from water sources and distribution points in densely populated areas of Kakamega municipality were taken. Data collection instruments that were used included sterilized bottles to collect water, delivery to the laboratory within six (6) hours of collection for reliable results and data quality control was achieved through immediate entry in the pre-designed data form. According to the results pH values at all the sources and house connections are well within the WHO desirable limit of 6.50-8.0. The sample from Sichirai had a pH of 7.8 that was the highest as compared to an Isiukhu river that had 6.6 pH. The samples from Isiukhu river, Savona Island River, fishpond at bridge and Shikhambi spring showed more than 5 NTU. The researchers recommended for water surveillance in Kakamega municipality in order to ensure consumers have safe water free from agricultural and industrial chemical pollution.
Biophysical Characteristics and the Anthropogenic Activities in San Roque Riv...YogeshIJTSRD
River provides essential various ecosystem goods and services that are essential for living organisms’ survival. As such, its quality must be maintained to ensure the healthy condition of the environment as well as the safety of the community. The study aimed to assess the biophysical characteristics and the anthropogenic activities in San Roque River, Northern Samar. It employed descriptive research combined with laboratory analysis and SPSS was employed to treat and analyze the data.The study revealed that the physico chemical characteristics of the water in San Roque River in terms of temperature, pH, TSS, TDS, and turbidity were within the DENR standards. However, the water of the river was highly contaminated with total coli forms and fecal coli forms. Likewise, the salinity was beyond from the standard that made the water of the river salty. T test revealed that the characteristics of water during high and low tides showed no significant differences. On the contrary. It has shown significant difference on water parameters in terms of temperature, pH, TSS, TDS, BOD, and DO between high tide and the standards. Likewise, pH, TSS, BOD, and DO have shown significant difference on low tide with the standards. It also revealed that there were anthropogenic activities and practices of the community living along the river that directly affect the water quality and condition of the river. Moreover, this also concludes that there were no significant relationships on the characteristics of the water and the anthropogenic activities. Lastly, the San Roque River was classified as Class D river at the time of the conduct of the study. This concludes that the river needed rehabilitation so that the potential uses of the river would be maximized which would redound to better benefits of the community. Elvin L. Jarito | Gerald T. Malabarbas "Biophysical Characteristics and the Anthropogenic Activities in San Roque River, Northern Samar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38775.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/38775/biophysical-characteristics-and-the-anthropogenic-activities-in-san-roque-river-northern-samar/elvin-l-jarito
Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Two of the charter members of The Long Island Clean Water Partnership, The Citizen's Campaign For The Environment, and The Group For The East End, offer this overview of the state of Long Island's waters -- what is polluting them and what we can do about it. The CCE's Adrienne Esposito and the GFTEE by Bob DeLuca.
Long Island gets its drinking water from the ground. Whatever we do on the surface eventually makes it into the aquifer, and into our drinking water, our rivers and bays.
The largest issue is nitrates from septic tanks, from the 200+ small sewage treatment plants, and from fertilizer, both residential and commercial leaching into the ground water, and then to our bays, where they trigger massive algal blooms -- brown tide, red tide, rust tide, blue green algae. These blooms have already destroyed much of our bay's habitats, resulting in a collapse of the shellfish and finfish population. To reverse this situation, we must impose much stricter limits on how much nitrogen can enter into our ground water from the plants, farms, and from the 500,000 septic tanks that dot Long Island.
Another major threat to Long Island water is VOCS (volatile organic chemicals). While there are 254 superfund sites on Long Island, the largest source of these VOCs are household products -- cleaners, paint strippers, aerosols. 100,000 tons of household hazardous waste is disposed of improperly every year in New York.
A further threat is the 117 pesticides now found in our drinking water. Even when banned, they remain in our environment for decades.
Finally, the improper disposal of household pharmaceuticals means that these drugs are entering into our ecosystem, with effects unknown. We must stop flushing or throwing out unused prescriptions, but dispose of them only at designated county locations.
In all, there are a number of things we can do now to help LI become sustainable for future generations: Push for new technologies and new policies that would limit nitrogenous waste from our septic and sewer systems. Stop using high nitrogen lawn and agricultural fertilizers. Dispose of your household waste properly. Any chemical you use at home will end up in the ground water unless disposed of properly. Don't pour oils, grease, and chemicals down the drain. Use green, friendly home cleaning products.
Finally, since the major contributor to Long Island's water problems has been overdevelopment (without the requisite infrastructure to support it), we need to protect what green spaces we have left.
Energy from Waste; Low-Cost and Odor Free with recycled Water and Heat Energy. using revolutionary new methods of construction. Rapid erection, self-sustaining. Health protection. Elimination of disease vector's breeding spaces.
DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO PREDICT THE TRANSPORT OF E.COLI IN A NAT...IAEME Publication
Development of mathematical model to predict the rate of microbial depositions (E.coli) in a natural pond has been carried out. The models were developed to monitor the rate of concentration at different periods, with respect to the length of the pond at various sample station. Results of the theoretical values were compared with the experimental analysis. The analysis was thoroughly done to determine the physiochemical parameters of the pond. Microbial traces were found from the experimental analysis at different periods up to hundred days. The developed model compared favourably well with the experimental values. The values explain the rate of microbial growth and level of lag phase condition. The growth rate of the microbes were found to be higher because there is high deposition of substrate for growth and energy, while at some periods it degrades showing that the substrates have reduced in concentration including the inhibition from the pH. In some cases when the microbes developed lag phase condition it may be as a result of other environmental factors. Finally, the growth rates are between fifty and hundred days, showing that there is constant regeneration of the microbes including other environmental factors.
Safe Drinking Water Act How Safe is My Drinking WaterMichael Klein
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. This presentation provides an overview of the SDWA.
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water of Four Springs of ...IJEAB
Drinking water of good quality is essential for human physiology whose continual existence depends on the availability of water and any sort of contamination in water which is above the standard limits set by international water regulating agencies can lead to water related diseases. So, the present investigation was conducted to determine the physico-chemical and bacteriological contents of four springs i.e.Heshi spring 1, Heshi spring 2, Kitaab Roong, and Kooti spring and its distribution system such as water reservoir inlet, outlet, mid and end point of distribution systems, junction where it merge with glacier water. The temperature was in a range of 13oC - 22oC. The turbidity of water samples fluctuate from 0.02NTU-1.99NTU. The pH value was in a range of 6.2-7.1. Electrical conductivity range of minimum 122µS/cm to a maximum of 600µS/cm. The TDS of all water samples ranging from minimum of 164-513mg/l. The amount of reactive ortho phosphate was in a range of 26mg/l to 59mg/L. The amount of total phosphorous was in a range of minimum 23m/L to maximum of 120mg/L. The total bacterial count was in a range of 11CFU/100ml to 83 CFU/100ml.The findings showed there should be comprehensive standardization of drinking water of Danyore village according to guidelines of WHO water quality standards and make it safe for human consumption.
Slaughter waste effluents and river catchment watershed contamination in Caga...Angelo Mark Walag
Slaughterhouse waste products are commonly known globally to pollute nearby communities and receiving bodies of water. The main aim of this study was to analyze the effluents disposed by Cagayan de Oro City Slaughterhouse to river catchment watershed. Standard methods were utilized in sampling and analyzing water quality parameters to determine the levels of nitrates, BOD, COD, total coliform, and lead. It was found out that the majority of wastes produced are internal organs, blood and urine mixtures, and manures. The study also revealed that all parameters tested crossed the permissible limits set by the government for effluent and inland water except for BOD and nitrates, in the river watershed. It was also determined that during wet seasons, major contaminants like lead and nitrates were diluted resulting to lower levels when compared to national standards. The result of this study also revealed the need for further remediation of the river water quality and intervention strategies to sustainably manage and prevent disposal of untreated effluents.
An Assessment on Drinking Water Quality and Management in Kakamega Municipalitypaperpublications3
Abstract: Drinking water must be free from components which may adversely affect the human health. Such components include minerals, organic substances and disease causing microorganisms. A large portion of the population in urban areas in developing countries suffers from health problems associated with either lack of drinking water or due to the presence of microbiological contamination in water. This research was conducted in Kakamega municipality with a broad objective to conduct assessment of water quality and management in Kakamega municipality. The Specific objective was to determine the chemical water quality parameters in water and to evaluate the management practices on water in Kakamega municipality. Four water quality parameters; two physical and two chemical were tested from the samples collected for this research work. Sampling technique was purposive where water samples from water sources and distribution points in densely populated areas of Kakamega municipality were taken. Data collection instruments that were used included sterilized bottles to collect water, delivery to the laboratory within six (6) hours of collection for reliable results and data quality control was achieved through immediate entry in the pre-designed data form. According to the results pH values at all the sources and house connections are well within the WHO desirable limit of 6.50-8.0. The sample from Sichirai had a pH of 7.8 that was the highest as compared to an Isiukhu river that had 6.6 pH. The samples from Isiukhu river, Savona Island River, fishpond at bridge and Shikhambi spring showed more than 5 NTU. The researchers recommended for water surveillance in Kakamega municipality in order to ensure consumers have safe water free from agricultural and industrial chemical pollution.
Biophysical Characteristics and the Anthropogenic Activities in San Roque Riv...YogeshIJTSRD
River provides essential various ecosystem goods and services that are essential for living organisms’ survival. As such, its quality must be maintained to ensure the healthy condition of the environment as well as the safety of the community. The study aimed to assess the biophysical characteristics and the anthropogenic activities in San Roque River, Northern Samar. It employed descriptive research combined with laboratory analysis and SPSS was employed to treat and analyze the data.The study revealed that the physico chemical characteristics of the water in San Roque River in terms of temperature, pH, TSS, TDS, and turbidity were within the DENR standards. However, the water of the river was highly contaminated with total coli forms and fecal coli forms. Likewise, the salinity was beyond from the standard that made the water of the river salty. T test revealed that the characteristics of water during high and low tides showed no significant differences. On the contrary. It has shown significant difference on water parameters in terms of temperature, pH, TSS, TDS, BOD, and DO between high tide and the standards. Likewise, pH, TSS, BOD, and DO have shown significant difference on low tide with the standards. It also revealed that there were anthropogenic activities and practices of the community living along the river that directly affect the water quality and condition of the river. Moreover, this also concludes that there were no significant relationships on the characteristics of the water and the anthropogenic activities. Lastly, the San Roque River was classified as Class D river at the time of the conduct of the study. This concludes that the river needed rehabilitation so that the potential uses of the river would be maximized which would redound to better benefits of the community. Elvin L. Jarito | Gerald T. Malabarbas "Biophysical Characteristics and the Anthropogenic Activities in San Roque River, Northern Samar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38775.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/38775/biophysical-characteristics-and-the-anthropogenic-activities-in-san-roque-river-northern-samar/elvin-l-jarito
Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Two of the charter members of The Long Island Clean Water Partnership, The Citizen's Campaign For The Environment, and The Group For The East End, offer this overview of the state of Long Island's waters -- what is polluting them and what we can do about it. The CCE's Adrienne Esposito and the GFTEE by Bob DeLuca.
Long Island gets its drinking water from the ground. Whatever we do on the surface eventually makes it into the aquifer, and into our drinking water, our rivers and bays.
The largest issue is nitrates from septic tanks, from the 200+ small sewage treatment plants, and from fertilizer, both residential and commercial leaching into the ground water, and then to our bays, where they trigger massive algal blooms -- brown tide, red tide, rust tide, blue green algae. These blooms have already destroyed much of our bay's habitats, resulting in a collapse of the shellfish and finfish population. To reverse this situation, we must impose much stricter limits on how much nitrogen can enter into our ground water from the plants, farms, and from the 500,000 septic tanks that dot Long Island.
Another major threat to Long Island water is VOCS (volatile organic chemicals). While there are 254 superfund sites on Long Island, the largest source of these VOCs are household products -- cleaners, paint strippers, aerosols. 100,000 tons of household hazardous waste is disposed of improperly every year in New York.
A further threat is the 117 pesticides now found in our drinking water. Even when banned, they remain in our environment for decades.
Finally, the improper disposal of household pharmaceuticals means that these drugs are entering into our ecosystem, with effects unknown. We must stop flushing or throwing out unused prescriptions, but dispose of them only at designated county locations.
In all, there are a number of things we can do now to help LI become sustainable for future generations: Push for new technologies and new policies that would limit nitrogenous waste from our septic and sewer systems. Stop using high nitrogen lawn and agricultural fertilizers. Dispose of your household waste properly. Any chemical you use at home will end up in the ground water unless disposed of properly. Don't pour oils, grease, and chemicals down the drain. Use green, friendly home cleaning products.
Finally, since the major contributor to Long Island's water problems has been overdevelopment (without the requisite infrastructure to support it), we need to protect what green spaces we have left.
Energy from Waste; Low-Cost and Odor Free with recycled Water and Heat Energy. using revolutionary new methods of construction. Rapid erection, self-sustaining. Health protection. Elimination of disease vector's breeding spaces.
DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO PREDICT THE TRANSPORT OF E.COLI IN A NAT...IAEME Publication
Development of mathematical model to predict the rate of microbial depositions (E.coli) in a natural pond has been carried out. The models were developed to monitor the rate of concentration at different periods, with respect to the length of the pond at various sample station. Results of the theoretical values were compared with the experimental analysis. The analysis was thoroughly done to determine the physiochemical parameters of the pond. Microbial traces were found from the experimental analysis at different periods up to hundred days. The developed model compared favourably well with the experimental values. The values explain the rate of microbial growth and level of lag phase condition. The growth rate of the microbes were found to be higher because there is high deposition of substrate for growth and energy, while at some periods it degrades showing that the substrates have reduced in concentration including the inhibition from the pH. In some cases when the microbes developed lag phase condition it may be as a result of other environmental factors. Finally, the growth rates are between fifty and hundred days, showing that there is constant regeneration of the microbes including other environmental factors.
Safe Drinking Water Act How Safe is My Drinking WaterMichael Klein
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. This presentation provides an overview of the SDWA.
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water of Four Springs of ...IJEAB
Drinking water of good quality is essential for human physiology whose continual existence depends on the availability of water and any sort of contamination in water which is above the standard limits set by international water regulating agencies can lead to water related diseases. So, the present investigation was conducted to determine the physico-chemical and bacteriological contents of four springs i.e.Heshi spring 1, Heshi spring 2, Kitaab Roong, and Kooti spring and its distribution system such as water reservoir inlet, outlet, mid and end point of distribution systems, junction where it merge with glacier water. The temperature was in a range of 13oC - 22oC. The turbidity of water samples fluctuate from 0.02NTU-1.99NTU. The pH value was in a range of 6.2-7.1. Electrical conductivity range of minimum 122µS/cm to a maximum of 600µS/cm. The TDS of all water samples ranging from minimum of 164-513mg/l. The amount of reactive ortho phosphate was in a range of 26mg/l to 59mg/L. The amount of total phosphorous was in a range of minimum 23m/L to maximum of 120mg/L. The total bacterial count was in a range of 11CFU/100ml to 83 CFU/100ml.The findings showed there should be comprehensive standardization of drinking water of Danyore village according to guidelines of WHO water quality standards and make it safe for human consumption.
Slaughter waste effluents and river catchment watershed contamination in Caga...Angelo Mark Walag
Slaughterhouse waste products are commonly known globally to pollute nearby communities and receiving bodies of water. The main aim of this study was to analyze the effluents disposed by Cagayan de Oro City Slaughterhouse to river catchment watershed. Standard methods were utilized in sampling and analyzing water quality parameters to determine the levels of nitrates, BOD, COD, total coliform, and lead. It was found out that the majority of wastes produced are internal organs, blood and urine mixtures, and manures. The study also revealed that all parameters tested crossed the permissible limits set by the government for effluent and inland water except for BOD and nitrates, in the river watershed. It was also determined that during wet seasons, major contaminants like lead and nitrates were diluted resulting to lower levels when compared to national standards. The result of this study also revealed the need for further remediation of the river water quality and intervention strategies to sustainably manage and prevent disposal of untreated effluents.
AbstractThis researchs main purpose is to analyze the cost incu.docxdaniahendric
Abstract
This research's main purpose is to analyze the cost incurred for the nitrate contamination in the drinking water. The study focuses on the detail investigation for the health effect because of contact of nitrates in the underground reserves at “San Joaquin Valley”. This report provides detail information about the far-reaching effect of this contamination on the environmental well-being and economic vitality. The major effect of this issue is one of the low-income populations and Spanish oriented residents. San Joaquin Valley is highly contaminated due to the existence of nitrate. It is observed that most of the Californian” always take it forgiven the potable water is easily accessible. San Joaquin Valley has many communicates and agriculture areas. This nitrate contamination has a strong impact on drinking water as well as agriculture land. It is also observed that the drinking water which is served in the homes and schools is also highly contaminated. This contamination has an adverse impact on the overall health of the population in San Joaquin Valley. At the same time, it will also affect the environment along with agriculture. The nitrate contamination is very high as it leads to bring lots of problems for the infants as well as the older population. The focus of this research is to develop the clean water by using the method of cleaning nitrate contamination the results from each method will be analyzed in order to provide the most relevant method. Introduction
My main interest in research is in “Environmental Engineering”. The reason behind the selection of this field is my interest, i want to provide my services in order to make the planet batter. There are many issues faced by the earth which are still not investigated. Water is one of the basic needs of people. But it is also the fact that many people are getting water even for their drinking purpose. A research conducted by Pacific Institute” titled “The Human Costs of Nitrate-Contaminated Drinking Water in San Joaquin Valley” provides several evidences for the nitrate contaminations in the consumable water. Alone in San Joaquin Valley, 63% of the individuals are not getting water for drinking purposes. The groundwater in San Joaquin Valley is extensively contaminated with nitrate. During recent times, most of the world has been subjected to contaminated drinking water. According to the research contrite by Harter that 63% of the water in the valley is not acceptable for the drinking. The water is not usable for drinking purposes as it containsa large amount of “Pesticides, Arsenic, Nitrate, and Uranium”. At the same time, the communities using this water are also facing lots of health issues.
The nitrate has been developed from the nitrogen compound which is excreted from the industries. Nowadays, industrial waste is one of the common issues faced by the environment. As the airborne nitrogen is given off from the industries as well as the automobile it leads to cause l ...
ASSESSMENT OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN CANAANLAND, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.O...Felix Oginni
Effluent from a sewage treatment plant in Covenant University, Canaanland is made to pass through a series of constructed wetland before discharging into a gully that drains into River Iju (also known as Atuara). This river is used as a source of drinking water and also provides food in form of fish for hundreds of thousands of people downstream and eventually enters the lagoon, some 60km away. Effectiveness and adequacy of the wastewater treatment facility in place was assessed in order to improve sanitation within this watershed, thereby alleviating environmental challenges in this coastal region of Nigeria. Waste water is gravity drained to the southwest portion of the campus where the solid is removed and the liquid is allowed to flow through six sets of constructed wetlands, each with four chambers. Within each chamber are water hyacinth plants put in place to remove nutrients from the waster water.
A quick survey of the facility shows the system to be effective in reducing and removing solids and dissolved solids from the waste water. The pH ranged between 6.6 and 6.8, conductivity from 530 to 600, and total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 360 – 400 ppm. The data obtained indicate that some modifications need to be made as the waste water treatment system is not very efficient in reducing the amount of TDS and nutrients. The flow rate is considered to be very high from cell to cell, thereby not allowing time for the plants and microbes to reduce the TDS. It is suggested that some method be devised to slow down the flow rate to allow the plants and microbes to work on reducing the TDS. Parameters also also considered included DO, E. Coli. Nitrate and Phosphates.
Multiple Use of Surface Water Resources and Bacteria Colonization of Water Bo...Editor IJCATR
Water samples collected along the water courses of surface water sources of domestic water supply in Ezinihite Mbaise were analyzed for bacterial species inventory and total viable count (TVC) using the multiple test tube technique and colony counters. The surface waters covered include Ariam River and other tributaries that constitute the bulk of surface water resources in the area. Eight species of bacteria including E-coli, staphylococcus aureus, salmonella, and fecal streptococci among others were identified. Total viable counts gave alarming growth levels when compared o the standards as set by the world health organization (WHO). The microbial population explosion in the river is attributable to the multiple activities within and around the river also the uses including wash off from abattoirs carrying abattoir wastes directly into the river, domestic wastes dumped along the recharge path, others include in stream fermentation of food stuff and general laundry point for any for clothes, automobiles. All these make sufficiently available to enhance microbial growth. Surface water use should be monitored to ensure sustainability and proper management of watershed will control this trend of colonization of public water supply sources and in turn control the trends in water borne infections.
Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment Systemijtsrd
This paper emphasized on "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System". KanDawGyi Lake is used for wastewater collection. It is situated in ChanMyaThaZi Township, Mandalay and near the AyeYarWaddy river. Residential, commercial and industrial area are existed surrounding the KanDawGyi Lake. Water from human activities such as cooking, bathing, washing and septic tanks effluent is discharged into drains by gravity flow without treatment. Average six million gallons of wastewater discharged from Mandalay City area flow into KanDawGyi Lake passing through ThinGaZar creek daily. So, lake water has been contaminated by domestic wastewater. This has resulted detrimental effects on the ecosystem. Water in recreation center should be aesthetically pleasing and essentially free of toxicants and pathogenic organisms. Seven collection points such as entrance, east of north side, south east of north side, south of north side, water fountains, PyiGyiMon barge and exit of KanDawGyi Lake are chosen to collect the wastewater sample. The water quality of KanDawGyi Lake is evaluated by various parameters such as temperature, turbidity, suspended solids, dissolved solids, pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, chlorides, total solids and bacteria. According to test results, alkalinity, chlorides, dissolved solids, suspended solids, and total solids are uncertified. Therefore, in this paper wetland design of natural treatment system is used at the entrance of the lake to control the water pollution. Moh Moh | San San Myint "Water Pollution Control for Mandalay KanDawGyi Lake by Natural Treatment System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25323.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/25323/water-pollution-control-for-mandalay-kandawgyi-lake-by-natural-treatment-system/moh-moh
Artifi cial wetlands are useful for wastewater treatment; however, relatively little is known of the effects of sewage on artifi cial wetland microbial community structure. Therefore, we assessed the effect of municipal sewage on microbial community diversity in surface water throughout an artifi cial wetland (Xiantao artifi cial wetland) treating municipal sewage. We analyzed the relationship between physicochemical parameters of surface water (i.e., Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Phosphorus (TP), and
NH4+-N) with microbial community structure (Illumina MiSeq sequencing followed by abundance indices). The results showed that the total microbial community in surface water was signifi cantly correlated with COD, TN, TP, and NH4
+-N (r = 0.764, 0.897, 0.883, 0.839, P < 0.05). In addition, the most abundant taxa were significantly correlated with COD (r = 0.803, P < 0.05). The relative abundance of rare operational taxonomic units in the more purifi ed water farther downstream was higher than in the polluted area, suggesting that rare groups were more sensitive to physicochemical parameters than abundant groups, and that the abundance of some bacteria could indirectly indicate the degree of aquatic pollution. Our results indicate that the responses of microorganisms in artificial wetlands to environmental conditions should be considered to ensure efficient treatment.
Assessment of physicochemical and bacteriological drinking water quality of d...IJERA Editor
Water is essential to sustain the life. Water samples have collected from a different urban area of H. D. Kote
town of Mysore district from different sources such as hand pump, public taps, and stored household drinking
water. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of the water samples were analysed following the
standard methods to evaluate the quality of drinking water. All physic-chemical parameters are within the
permissible limit to WHO. The microbiological analysis shows that that t nearly 53 % of the samples were
observed with coliform contamination. The significant difference among water sources regarding total plate
count was observed, where stored household water has relatively higher compared to tap and borewell water
exceeding the standard limit. Both hand pump and the tap water were not detected with any E. coli
contamination whereas 80% of the household stored water samples have shown E. coli contamination. The
presence of significant counts of coliforms in stored household water indicates post poor sanitation and
existence of human activities. Attention should be given to the collection, storage, and management by
additional treatment to maintain and prevent excessive microbial growth
Determination of Bacteriological and Physiochemical Properties of Som-Breiro ...RSIS International
The study seeks to examine the Bacteriological and
physiochemical properties of Sambrero River in Ahoada East
Local Government Area of Rivers State. Three (3) points were
sampled from different locations designated as location (L1)
location (L2) and location (L3) respectively, samples were
collected in 0.1m of Sterile containers and were transported to
the laboratory for immediate analysis. Ten (10) physiochemical,
three (3) heavy metal sand three microbiological parameters
were observed. Data was analyzed using standard methods
(ALPHA, 1998) 20th edition and Ms-Excel version 2013 software.
The result showed little variation in physiochemical parameters
which are in line with World Health Organization (WHO)
standard of potable water but shows much variation in
microbiological parameters which are not in line with WHO
standard, thereby making the water not wholesome and not
potable for consumption except after proper treatment of the
water. The work therefore recommends that members of Ekpena
Community should ensure basic water treatment such as boiling
and chlorination before consumption.
THE EFFECT OF WATER TREATMENT ON CALCIUM AND BERYLLIUM LEVELS OF WATER IN KAR...EDITOR IJCRCPS
Introduction: Water quality is an important issue for human health management.The aim of this research was to compare calcium
and beryllium levels in the water of Karun river at the influent stream of the water treatment plant number two (WTP2) in Ahvaz city
and Byblus and Anahita companies and their outlet water after the water treatment process. Materials and Methods: Fourteen
samples of Karun river water at the inlet of AhvazWTP2and Byblus and Anahita companies and their outlet water after the water
treatment process were collected during five months (September2013, and January - April 2014). Samples were taken fourteen
times, each time; five, one liter samples were collected. The samples were then mix and one liter composite sample was isolated
and transported to laboratory. The collected samples were filtered through filter paper (0.45 μm). For their fixation and pro tection
by nitric acid the pH adjusted ≤2 and was analyzed by ICP-MS. Results: it was shown that average of Calcium in water at the inlet
of AhvazWTP2and Byblus and Anahita companies and their outlet water after the water treatment process were 164.714, 94.571,
111.714, 54.485, 124.571, and 17.528 μg/l ,respectively. Also, average of Beryllium in water at the inlet of AhvazWTP2and Byblus
and Anahita companies and their outlet water after the water treatment process were 15.142, 5.714, 8.714, 2.571, 9.428 and 2.285
μg/l, respectively. Conclusion: The results showed that the purification process causes reduction in content of metals in waters
Keywords: Karun River, beryllium, calcium, water treatment process, ICP-MS.
JBES| Water quality and socio-demographic assessment of Mahuganao Stream: inp...Innspub Net
Small as they may appear, headwater streams are very important because the health of the organism depends on that network of streams. The present study deals with the assessment of water quality of Mahuganao Stream, the socio-demographic and economic profile of residents living near the stream, the way they utilize the stream and how much waste they can produce. The analysis of the water samples collected was done in the laboratory to determine the Water Quality Index. Twelve (12) households were interviewed to elicit information on their socio-demographic and economic profile, how they utilize the stream and the amount of waste each household produces. Overall, Mahuganao stream is within the standard set by the agencies concerned such as DENR, PNSDW and USEPA. The socio-demographic profile of the community and its solid waste management is seen to be changing over time due to the fact that the median age at present is found to be within their late teens. There is a need to manage the stream as this group of people has the capacity to reproduce and could increase the anthropogenic activities and waste generation in the area.
Environmental Monitoring Model of Health, Parasitological, And Colorimetric C...theijes
The sanitary quality of water was evaluated in two micro basins, Bacaxá and Capivari belonging to the Lakes Basin St. John in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for colimetric and parasitological analysis. Analyses were performed seasonally over a year and the levels of Escherichia coli were within the recommended only in the summer of 2012 and fall, and inappropriate with levels above recommended in winter, spring and summer of 2013 in both the micro basins. Through our observations, we compare the average values of the levels of total coliforms and Escherichia coli between both rivers. Initially, the samples indicate a similarity between the distributions of coliforms and Escherichia coli. However, Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test samples indicate that the distributions are different. In parasitological analysis it was observed that in Capivari was detected a greater presence of filarial larvae. Anthropogenic influences mainly by the presence of sewage is being able to compromise the health quality of the micro basins studied carrying a significant pollutant load to the Juturnaíba reservoir. The monitoring of the sanitary quality of the watersheds that supply the population may indicate when it is necessary to adopt more effective measures in the treatment of water supply of cities.
Similar to Initial Assessment Microcystin-RTMDW (20)
Environmental Monitoring Model of Health, Parasitological, And Colorimetric C...
Initial Assessment Microcystin-RTMDW
1. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin
in Raw and Treated Municipal
Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta
2. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and
Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta
Prepared for:
Alberta Environment
Science and Standards Branch
4th Floor, Oxbridge Place
9820 - 106th Street
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada T5K 2J6
Prepared by:
Ron Zurawell, Ph.D.
HydroQual Laboratories Ltd.
#3, 6125 - 12th Street S.E.
Calgary, Alberta
Canada T2H 2K1
September 2002
3. Pub. No: T672
ISBN No. 0-7785-2417-5 (Printed Edition)
ISBN No. 0-7785-2419-1 (On-line Edition)
Web Site: http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/info/infocentre/publist.cfm
Disclaimer
This document is an independent report prepared for Alberta Environment. The report does not
necessarily reflect endorsement by, or the policies of, Alberta Environment. The authors are
solely responsible for the interpretations of data and statements made within this report.
Any comments, questions, or suggestions regarding the content of this document may be
directed to:
Science and Standards Branch
Alberta Environment
4th
Floor, Oxbridge Place
9820 – 106th
Street
Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2J6
Phone: (780) 427-5883
Fax: (780) 422-4192
Additional copies of this document may be obtained by contacting:
Information Centre
Alberta Environment
Main Floor, Great West Life Building
9920 – 108th
Street
Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2M4
Phone: (780) 944-0313
Fax: (780) 427-4407
Email: env.infocent@gov.ab.ca
4. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta i
FOREWORD
Nutrient-rich lakes and reservoirs in Alberta commonly experience blooms of cyanobacteria
(formerly called blue-green algae) during warm weather in summer and early fall. Several
bloom-forming species can develop toxic strains. The toxins may be classified in two groups
according to their effect on the liver (hepatotoxins) or the nervous system (neurotoxins). The
hepatotoxin “microcystin” has received much attention world-wide because of its prevalence.
While neurotoxin-producing blooms have been documented in Alberta, blooms that produce
microcystin appear more common. Both types of toxins have resulted in the deaths of domestic
animals, waterfowl and pets.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has expressed world-wide concern regarding the human
health effects attributable to cyanobacteria and particularly so for microcystin which has a
widespread distribution. Health Canada has recently adopted a drinking water guideline of
1.5 µg total microcystin/L.
Numerous communities in Alberta rely on treated water from eutrophic sources, but little
information was available regarding the level of compliance of treated water with the Health
Canada drinking water guideline for microcystin.
This scoping level study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of microcystin in treated
and untreated municipal water sources and to assess the adequacy of current water treatment in
reducing toxin levels.
This research project supports the “Water Issues” in the Departmental Business plan, particularly
with respect to leadership and assurance. It is a direct contribution to the Drinking Water
Strategy. The results provide information on the safety of the drinking water supply and draw
the attention to the ongoing need for data on cyanotoxin in drinking water reservoirs, the need to
improve the management of the reservoirs and their watersheds so as to reduce cyanotoxin
blooms, and the need for research into improved and cost-effective treatment technology such as
the ongoing work carried out at the Alberta Research Council, Vegreville, on fluidized bed
biofilters.
Karu Chinniah
Dave Trew
Anne-Marie Anderson
Project Coordinators
Environmental Assurance
5. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta ii
SUMMARY
In Alberta, many smaller communities utilize eutrophic lakes and reservoirs as their primary
sources of raw water. These waterbodies are usually dominated by cyanobacteria (often referred
to as blue-green algae) during summer and autumn.
International toxicological research conducted over the past several decades has revealed that
certain cyanobacterial species are capable of producing potent toxins, which can be released into
the water as cells senesce. These toxins are classified into two categories, based on their
respective modes of action: neurotoxins, which affect the nervous system; and hepatotoxins,
which affect the liver.
Microcystin, a widespread hepatotoxin, has been the topic of recent research in Alberta and it is
suspected that certain communities may be exposed to this toxin because elevated levels have
been measured in their raw water supplies. However, the total extent of microcystin in Alberta’s
raw drinking water sources remains largely undetermined. Furthermore, it is unclear whether
traditional drinking water treatment practices effectively remove microcystin.
The objectives of this study were:
1. To assess the prevalence of microcystin in selected municipal raw water sources;
2. To determine if current water treatment practices adequately remove the toxin; and
3. To determine the efficacy of an experimental bio-filtration process for the removal of
microcystin.
Eighteen municipalities and their raw water sources were selected for this study, based on
historical data describing the incidence of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins in Alberta. The study was
conducted over a 10-week period (mid August – mid October 2001) and involved the collection
of both raw (surface) and treated water samples. The concentration of “total microcystin” was
determined in these samples via the colorimetric protein phosphatase inhibition assay and
expressed as “microcystin LR (MCLR) equivalents per litre”.
Microcystin was detected in the majority (67%) of raw water samples collected during the study.
Toxin concentrations were low (i.e., up to 0.5 µg MCLR eq./L) in ten of the eighteen raw water
sources. However, moderate concentrations (i.e., 0.5 to 14.8 µg MCLR eq./L) were detected in
seven other source waters. Only one community’s source water contained no detectable
microcystin throughout the study.
Microcystin appeared less often and at lower concentrations in treated water (i.e., detected in
only 10% of samples), suggesting that conventional water treatment practices can remove some
toxin from contaminated source waters. Concentrations in all samples complied with the Health
Canada Guideline for drinking water protection.
It is recommended that sampling be conducted on a wider range of rural communities to fully
evaluate the occurrence of microcystin in municipal surface water supplies.
6. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the Water Research Users Group (WRUG), Alberta Environment.
The Towns of Swan Hills, Strathmore, Gleichen, Picture Butte, Taber, Viking, St. Paul, and
Bonnyville, the Cities of Wetaskiwin and Camrose, and the Villages of Rockyford, Carmangay,
Lomond, Mirror, Hay Lakes, Holden, Vilna and Boyle participated in the study by collecting or
facilitating the collection of water samples from their raw surface water source and their finished
drinking water. Their cooperation is gratefully acknowledged.
The study was designed and executed by Dr. Ron Zurawell (HydroQual Laboratories Ltd.,
Calgary).
Dave Trew, Karu Chinniah, and Anne-Marie Anderson (AENV) had technical input in the
design of the study and in the preparation of the report.
7. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD...................................................................................................................i
SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................v
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................... vi
1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................1
2.0 METHODS...........................................................................................................3
2.1 Sampling........................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Sample Analysis ............................................................................................................... 3
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................8
3.1 Microcystin in Raw Water................................................................................................ 8
3.2 Microcystin in Treated Water........................................................................................... 9
3.3 Fluidized Bed Bio-Filter Assessment ............................................................................. 10
4.0 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................12
5.0 REFERENCES..................................................................................................13
APPENDICES..............................................................................................................15
8. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 List of study sites, their raw water sources and water treatment technology ............5
Table A1 Data summary of Microcystin in raw water ............................................................16
Table A2 Data summary of microcystin in treated water........................................................17
Table A3 Town of Swan Hills data summary..........................................................................18
Table A4 Town of Strathmore data summary..........................................................................19
Table A5 Village of Rockyford data summary........................................................................20
Table A6 Town of Gleichen data summary.............................................................................21
Table A7 Village of Carmangay data summary ......................................................................22
Table A8 Village of Lomond data summary ...........................................................................23
Table A9 Town of Picture Butte data summary ......................................................................24
Table A10 Town of Taber data summary..............................................................................25
Table A11 Village of Mirror data summary ..........................................................................26
Table A12 City of Wetaskiwin data summary.......................................................................27
Table A13 Village of Hay Lakes data summary....................................................................28
Table A14 Village of Holden data summary.........................................................................29
Table A15 Town of Viking data summary ............................................................................30
Table A16 City of Camrose data summary............................................................................31
Table A17 Town of St. Paul data summary...........................................................................32
Table A18 Town of Bonnyville data summary......................................................................33
Table A19 Village of Vilna data summary............................................................................34
Table A20 Village of Boyle data summary ...........................................................................35
Table A21 Biological filter pilot-plant data summary...........................................................36
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Map of Alberta, Canada showing geographic locations of the 18 study sites.......4
Figure 2 Bio-filter pilot facility flow schematic.................................................................. 6
9. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta vi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A Data summaries for communities included in the microcystin study..................16
Appendix B Bio-filter pilot plant process description* .......................................................... 37
10. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Productive (eutrophic) lakes and reservoirs in Alberta often experience severe blooms of
cyanobacteria during the warm, open water season (July – September). It is well recognized that
bloom-forming species and strains of cyanobacteria, commonly of the genera Microcystis,
Anabaena, Oscillatoria and Nostoc, can produce potent liver toxins termed microcystins.
Microcystins are endotoxins (intracellular) and hence, predominantly exist within cyanobacterial
cells. Passive release of toxin into their environment occurs naturally with senescence (cell
aging) and often results in relatively low concentrations of dissolved (extracellular) microcystins.
During collapse of intensive cyanobacterial blooms, however, concentrations of extracellular
microcystins can become elevated.
Health Canada recently proposed a drinking water guideline for microcystin. The maximum
acceptable concentration is 1.5 µg/L, which pertains to the total of both intracellular (cell bound)
and extracellular (cell free) toxin fractions. The guideline was derived in consideration of daily
consumption over one year (Health Canada, 1998). Compliance assessment with this guideline
offers a basis to evaluate the chronic risk to humans consuming treated water from eutrophic
reservoirs.
At sublethal levels, microcystins can cause intestinal and liver dysfunction in animals as well as
promote liver tumor growth. Higher doses can cause severe liver damage and death via
intrahepatic hemorrhage and hypovolumic shock. Consequently, microcystins have been
implicated worldwide in a number of poisonings of domestic livestock (e.g., cattle, pigs and
sheep), pets (e.g., dogs), wildlife (e.g., deer, ducks and fish) and humans. The primary route of
hepatotoxin exposure to animals is through the ingestion of toxin-producing cyanobacteria as a
consequence of consuming water from lakes and reservoirs experiencing cyanobacterial blooms.
While humans undoubtedly avoid consuming bloom material, the accidental intake of water
during recreational activities (e.g., swimming, canoeing and water-skiing) is recognized as the
principal avenue for the direct ingestion of toxin-containing cyanobacteria cells.
Of more concern, however, is the periodic ingestion of drinking water contaminated with
dissolved microcystins as a result of insufficient or ineffective drinking water treatment
practices. This may be the case for smaller municipalities or rural communities that utilize
traditional treatment processes involving flocculation (with ferric chloride or aluminum
sulphate), sedimentation, sand filtration and chlorination. Reportedly, such methods remove up
to 30% of the initial dissolved microcystin concentration (Himberg et al., 1989). In this respect,
microcystins have been linked, epidemiologically, to an increased frequency of primary liver
cancer in several rural regions in China (Ueno et al., 1996). Considering that numerous
communities in Alberta also rely on treated water obtained from eutrophic sources, the potential
for serious consequences with respect to the health and wellness of the rural population may
exist.
The use of some chemical oxidants in conventional treatment processes (e.g., chlorine, ferric
chloride and potassium permanganate) may actually increase microcystin concentrations in finished
water by causing lysis of the cyanobacterial cells within the influent water (Lam et al., 1995).
Chemical pretreatment of bloom-prone source waters with algicides can also elevate extracellular
11. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 2
microcystin concentrations significantly. Laboratory batch treatment of bloom material containing
Microcystis aeruginosa with 0.64 mg copper sulphate/L induced cell lysis and subsequent release of
toxin (Kenefick et al., 1993). Jones and Orr (1994) studied in situ toxin release by natural M.
aeruginosa blooms treated with an organic copper-chelated algicide. In one instance, the
concentration of extracellular microcystins increased from 4.7 µg/L to 1110 µg/L within 4 h post
treatment. Subsequent analysis for the specific MCLR, showed similar results as non-detectable
pre-treatment concentrations increased to 990 µg/L within 3 h post treatment. Microscopic
examination of the cyanobacteria revealed few intact or otherwise healthy cells of M. aeruginosa.
It is notable that in at least three historical accounts, human illness attributable to toxic
cyanobacteria occurred following copper sulphate treatment of drinking water sources
(i.e., Charleston, West Virginia – Tisdale, 1931; Palm Island, Queensland, Australia – Bourke et al.,
1983; and Armidale, New South Wales, Australia – Falconer et al., 1983b).
In Alberta, nuisance blooms of cyanobacteria often contain microcystin. Of 380 phytoplankton
biomass samples collected from 19 lakes between 1990 and 1992, more than 70% showed
detectable levels (> 1 µg MCLR/g biomass dry weight) of MCLR (Hrudey et al., 1994). Toxin
concentrations of phytoplankton samples from lakes and dugout ponds are highly variable. For
instance, MCLR concentrations ranged from 4 to 605 µg/g dry weight in one study (Kotak et al.,
1993), but exceeded 1500 µg/g in two others (Hrudey et al., 1994; Zurawell et al., 1999).
Research conducted over the past decade indicates that the inhabitants of several communities
that are supplied with water derived from eutrophic sources risk ingesting low concentrations of
microcystin from their daily drinking water intake, especially in summer and fall. Raw water
samples collected over a 5-week period during autumn, 1992, from two Alberta drinking water
sources (Driedmeat and Little Beaver lakes), contained mean microcystin concentrations ranging
from 0.12 to 0.87 µg/L. Mean concentrations in treated water during this period ranged from
0.09 to 0.18 µg/L (Lambert et al., 1994). Similarly, microcystin concentrations in raw and
treated water samples obtained from Little Beaver Lake during the period of July 20 to
September 15, 1995, ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 µg/L and from non-detectable levels to 0.5 µg/L,
respectively (Zurawell, unpublished). Few other lakes and reservoirs have been tested for
microcystin. Consequently, information regarding the number of raw water supplies that support
microcystin-producing cyanobacteria and the efficiency of drinking water treatment methods
commonly employed in Alberta’s municipalities is limited.
Concern regarding the human health effects attributable to cyanobacteria is global. The World
Health Organization’s Working Group on Protection and Control of Drinking-Water Quality
previously identified cyanobacteria as an urgent area requiring attention. Federal and Provincial
Governments of Canada have recognized the potential risks posed by naturally occurring
microcystins and related toxins (Health Canada, 1998). As a result, potentially susceptible
surface waters are now being monitored for microcystin in several provinces.
The goals of this research project were to determine, at a scoping level, the prevalence of
microcystin in municipal drinking water sources and the adequacy of current water treatment in
removing this toxin. Other cyanotoxins exist, but are not addressed in this study.
12. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 3
2.0 METHODS
2.1 Sampling
Eighteen communities and their raw water sources were selected for testing, based on two
criteria: a confirmed history of dense cyanobacterial blooms during the summer months (as
noted by water treatment plant operators); and on the commitment by the municipality to
participate in the sampling program (Figure 1). As well, the municipalities were selected to
include several different types of conventional and technologically-advanced treatment systems
(Table 1).
To further study the efficacy of water treatment in removing microcystin, samples were collected
from various stages of a pilot-plant treatment facility involving a novel, fluidized bed bio-filter.
This pilot-plant, located in the Village of Vilna, was adjacent to the conventional treatment
facility and provided a convenient opportunity to compare the two processes. This pilot plant is
part of a water treatment research project being undertaken by the Alberta Research Council.
Ten samples (one per week) were collected from each raw and treated water source between
mid-August and mid-October. Raw water samples were collected near the drinking water intake
and were obtained by filling a 500-mL plastic bottle approximately 30 cm beneath the surface.
Final sample volume was adjusted to approximately 5 cm below the neck of the plastic bottle, by
pouring out some sample, to allow for expansion when freezing. Samples were frozen
immediately following collection to minimize natural toxin degradation.
Treated (finished) drinking water samples were collected from a tap located within the water
treatment facility. The tap was opened and water was allowed to run for a minimum of three
minutes. A 500-mL plastic bottle was filled to within approximately 5 cm below the bottle neck.
Samples were frozen immediately.
Various stages of the pilot-plant (Figure 2) were sampled on three occasions (September 20th
,
27th
and October 3rd
, 2001). Samples included the following phases: raw water; ozone
contactor/dissolved gas floatation (DOF); fluidized bed bio-filter; sand filtration; granular
activated carbon (GAC) treatment; and ultra violet light (UV) treatment. A sample of finished
water resulting from the conventional treatment plant was also collected at this time.
Samples of raw water, conventionally treated water, and post bio-filtration water were also
collected on October 12th
and 18th
.
2.2 Sample Analysis
All samples were analyzed for “total microcystin” concentration. Total microcystin includes
dissolved extracellular and intracellular toxin; no attempt was made to differentiate between the
two fractions. Samples were picked-up by HydroQual Laboratories Ltd. periodically throughout
the study. The samples were thawed overnight. A 45-mL aliquot was removed after mixing of
the sample. Aliquots were sonicated for 30 s to disrupt cyanobacterial cells. The treated water
13. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 4
Figure 1 Map of Alberta, Canada showing geographic locations of the 18 study sites
(1) Town of Swan Hills; (2) Town of Strathmore; (3) Village of Rockyford; (4) Town of
Gleichen; (5) Village of Carmangay; (6) Village of Lomond; (7) Town of Picture Butte; (8)
Town of Taber; (9) Village of Mirror; (10) City of Wetaskiwin; (11) Village of Hay Lakes; (12)
Village of Holden; (13) Town of Viking; (14) City of Camrose; (15) Town of St. Paul; (16)
Town of Bonnyville; (17) Village of Vilna; and (18) Village of Boyle.
110º
N
EDMONTON
CALGARY
18
120º
60º
49º
1000 k
17
10 14 13
1
1211
9
15
16
8
7
5 6
4
3
2
14. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 5
Table 1 List of study sites, their raw water sources and water treatment technology
Site # Municipality Raw Water Source Water Treatment Technology
1 Town of Swan Hills Freeman Lake Conventional
2 Town of Strathmore Reservoir a
Conventional
3 Village of Rockyford Reservoir a
Conventional
4 Town of Gleichen Reservoir a
Conventional
5 Village of Carmangay Reservoir b
Conventional
6 Village of Lomond Reservoir c
Conventional
7 Town of Picture Butte Butte Lake d
Membrane Filtration
8 Town of Taber Reservoir e
Conventional
9 Village of Mirror Creek Conventional
10 City of Wetaskiwin Coal Lake Conventional
11 Village of Hay Lakes Reservoir Conventional
12 Village of Holden Reservoir Conventional
13 Town of Viking Iron Creek Conventional
14 City of Camrose Driedmeat Lake PAC and UV Disinfection
15 Town of St. Paul Lac St. Cyr f
Ozonation and GAC
16 Town of Bonnyville Moose Lake Conventional
17 Village of Vilna Bonnie Lake Conventional
18 Village of Boyle Skeleton Lake Conventional
Notes:
a
Diverted from Western Irrigation canal system (Bow River).
b
Diverted from Little Bow River.
c
Diverted from Bow River Irrigation District canal system (Bow River).
d
Diverted from Oldman River.
e
Drawn from Chin Lake (St. Mary’s River Irrigation District canal system).
f
Diverted from North Saskatchewan River during winter months.
Conventional treatment processes typically include coagulation, flocculation (ferric chloride or aluminum sulphate),
sedimentation, sand filtration and chlorination.
Membrane filtration follows coagulation, flocculation and precedes chlorine disinfection.
PAC (powdered activated carbon) treatment for the removal of organic compounds.
GAC (granular activated carbon) treatment for the removal of organic compounds.
Ozonation involves using ozone contactors at multiple stage of the water treatment process.
15. Figure 2 Bio-filter pilot facility flow schematic
GAC – granular activated carbon contactor; P – pressure guage; PRV – pressure release valve.
Courtesy of the Alberta Research Council, Water Treatment Technologies.
GAC
UV
Oxygen and Ozone Gas
Ozone Contactor and Dissolved
Gas Flotation Column
Froth
Discharge
High
Pressure
Recycle
Pump
Reservoir
P
PRV
Fluidized Bed Biofilter
Oxygen
and
Ozone
Gas
Venturi
Injector
Sand Filters
UV
16. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 7
samples were processed in a similar manner as the raw water samples even though it was
unlikely that they contained intact cells. Samples collected through the various stages of the bio-
filter treatment train were also processed in this manner.
From the 45-mL sample aliquot, 1.8 mL was used in the protein phosphatase inhibition assay as
specified by An and Carmichael (1994). The assay was chosen for this study over analytical
(instrumental) methods, such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), fast atom
bombardment mass spectrometry (FABMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-
MS), because of its greater sensitivity to detect trace microcystin concentrations in finished
drinking water.
Previous research indicates that multiple microcystin analogues exist in several of the raw water
sources included in this study. Current analytical methods can discriminate between some
individual microcystin analogues, but few toxin standards necessary for quantitative analyses are
available commercially. The PP1 inhibition assay is based on the actual mode of microcystin
toxicity, that is, the irreversible binding and subsequent inhibition of protein phosphatase type 1
and 2A (PP1 and PP2A). It quantifies all unbound (i.e., toxin fractions not bound to PP1 or
PP2A), bioactive (i.e., microcystins capable of inhibiting PP1) toxin analogues, though
differentiation between and identification of various analogues is not possible. Microcystin
concentrations were extrapolated from curves plotting PP1 inhibition by microcystin-LR
standards (Sigma-Aldrich Canada Ltd., Oakville, ON, Canada) and are thus expressed as
“µg MCLR equivalents/L”. Hence, microcystin concentrations presented in this report as
“µg MCLR equivalents/L” are a measure of all bioactive microcystin analogues or “total
microcystin”
17. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 8
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Microcystin in Raw Water
The eighteen municipalities chosen for this study (Table 1) varied with respect to population size
(i.e., potential water demand), sophistication of drinking water treatment methodology and
ultimate source of raw water (i.e., direct from natural lakes, reservoirs filled from natural lakes or
from rivers via irrigation canal systems). These communities reside within four distinct eco-
regions of the province (Figure 1): north-west boreal region (municipality 1); east boreal-mixed
wood region (municipalities 15, 16, 17 and 18); east-central aspen parkland region
(municipalities 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14); and the southern prairie-grassland region
(municipalities 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Of the surface water samples collected over the 10-week period, 67% contained detectable
concentrations of microcystin (Table A1). However, during the first 5 weeks of study (all
sampling dates up to September 15th
), 83% of raw water samples contained microcystin. This
coincides with a time of year when water temperatures are warmest and when cyanobacteria are
most likely to be present.
Microcystin was detected at least once in all raw water sources with the exception of Freeman
Lake, where it was never detected (Table A3). Freeman Lake is the water supply for the Town of
Swan Hills (Table 1). Ten raw water sources (see Tables A4, A5, A7, A8, A9, A10, A11, A14,
A15 and A17) contained low toxin concentrations (i.e., ≤ 0.5 µg MCLR eq./L), while moderate
concentrations (i.e., 0.5 – 14.8 µg MCLR eq./L) were detected in the remaining seven
(Tables A6, A12, A13, A16, A18, A19 and A20).
Regional differences with respect to microcystin concentrations in raw water sources are
evidenced by the fact that higher toxin concentrations were prevalent in waters located within the
east boreal-mixed wood and east-central aspen parkland regions. There are several potential
explanations for this observation.
• In the east boreal-mixed wood and east-central aspen parkland regions, communities
often derive drinking water directly from eutrophic lakes or storage reservoirs
(Table 1) in which toxin-producing cyanobacteria (i.e., Microcystis, Anabaena and
Nostoc) often dominate the phytoplankton communities. In contrast, south prairie-
grassland communities rely primarily on irrigation canals. Within such relatively
unproductive, flowing waters cyanobacteria are relatively uncommon.
• The time period (mid-August to mid-October) in which the study was conducted may
also explain the lower concentrations detected in raw waters located within the
southern region. Generally, southern Alberta’s surface waters warm more quickly and
to higher temperatures than more northern waters. As a result, phytoplankton
community succession within these warmer waters can progress in such a manner that
cyanobacteria come to dominate earlier during the summer months (i.e., June – July).
It is possible that raw waters located in the southern region contained few
cyanobacteria (or non-toxic species) during this period as populations inevitably
18. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 9
decline following earlier peaks in abundance and biomass. If the study had been
conducted from early to mid-summer, results may have been different.
3.2 Microcystin in Treated Water
Health Canada has recently adopted1.5 µg/L as a guideline for total microcystin in drinking
water. The risk to human health generated by the consumption of treated water originating from
Alberta’s eutrophic lakes and reservoirs can be evaluated by compliance assessment with this
guideline.
Microcystin was detected in the treated water of five municipalities: Picture Butte, Wetaskiwin,
Viking, Bonnyville, and Vilna (Table A2); these incidences usually coincided with elevated toxin
concentrations in the raw water. Compared to raw water, however, microcystin was detected
considerably less frequently (10% of all treated water samples compared to 67% of all raw water
samples) and at lower concentrations (treated water ≤ 0.50 µg MCLR eq./L compared to up to
14.8 µg MCLR eq./L in source water). In all instances, toxin concentrations in treated water
complied with the Health Canada guideline value.
These results are comparable to those reported previously for treated water derived from two
eutrophic Alberta lakes (Lambert et al., 1994; Zurawell, unpublished). Similar findings were
also reported following a two-year rural water quality study conducted by Manitoba
Environment during 1995-96 (< 0.1-1.0 µg/L and <0.1-0.6 µg/L detected in raw and treated
water samples, respectively; Jones, 1996). A recent survey of selected municipalities in the USA
and Canada indicated that the majority of raw water supplies tested contained microcystin, but
that almost all utilities had adequate procedures to reduce microcystins to safe levels in the
finished water (Carmichael 2001).
The majority of municipalities in this study utilize conventional means for drinking water
treatment (Table 1). Of these, ten communities used treatment systems that consistently reduce
microcystin levels to concentrations lower than the analytical detection limit (i.e.,
<0.07µg MCLR eq./L) (i.e., Towns of Strathmore, Gleichen and Taber and the Villages of
Rockyford, Carmangay, Lomond, Mirror, Hay Lakes, Holden and Boyle). Although the Towns
of Viking and Bonnyville, the Village of Vilna and the City of Wetaskiwin often achieved
microcystin concentration reductions below the analytical detection limit, some samples still
contained detectable, but low levels of the toxin. This suggests that conventional water
treatment practices can remove some (but not all) toxin from contaminated source waters. It is
worth noting that even when concentrations are reported as “less than the analytical detection
limit” very low levels of microcystin may be present, but go undetected because of analytical
limitations.
Several municipalities employ more sophisticated processes including: powdered activated
carbon (PAC) and UV disinfection (City of Camrose); granular activated carbon (GAC) and
ozonation (Town of St. Paul); and membrane filtration (Town of Picture Butte). Microcystin was
not detected in treated water samples from Camrose or St. Paul, but 50% of the treated water
samples from Picture Butte had low, detectable concentrations. Although it is difficult to assess
drinking water treatment efficacy due to the variability in source water toxin concentrations,
19. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 10
several comparisons are noteworthy. For instance, the highest raw water toxin concentrations
observed were from the cities of Wetaskiwin and Camrose (sources: Coal Lake and Driedmeat
Lake, respectively; Tables A12 and A16). While the City of Wetaskiwin utilizes conventional
treatment, more sophisticated treatment involving PAC addition and UV disinfection is
employed by the City of Camrose. Previous laboratory and pilot studies indicate that the use of
PAC (toxin adsorption; Falconer et al., 1983a) and/or UV disinfection (photolytic toxin
degradation; Robertson et al., 1998), along with traditional methods, can remove a larger portion
of microcystin from water. As a result, microcystin was often detected in drinking water
obtained from the City of Wetaskiwin, but was never found in drinking water from the City of
Camrose.
Microcystin was not detected in finished water from the Town of St. Paul, which utilizes ozone
treatment (ozone catalyzes the rapid destruction of microcystin; Rositano et al., 1998) in concert
with GAC. In this case, toxin levels in the source water were low (≤ 0.12 µg MCLR eq./L;
Table A17), hence comparison of the efficacy of this treatment method with others may not be
appropriate. Relevant to this study, though, are the results of previous full-scale water treatment
trials in Camrose and Ferintosh, Alberta, that demonstrated conventional processes combined
with activated carbon (either PAC or GAC) generally removed more than 80% of initial
microcystin content from raw water (Lambert et al., 1996).
In contrast, toxins were detected on several occasions in finished water from the Town of Picture
Butte. The Town employs membrane filtration technology instead of dual media or GAC
filtration following coagulation and flocculation. This is notable, as microcystin concentrations
in the source water were relatively low (≤ 0.14 µg MCLR eq./L; Table A9). Membrane filtration
should effectively remove cyanobacterial colonies, though results presented here suggest that
dissolved toxins were not removed.
3.3 Fluidized Bed Bio-Filter Assessment
The final aspect of this project was to assess microcystin concentrations at various stages of a
pilot-scale water treatment train incorporating a fluidized bed bio-filter process. The pilot
treatment processes were housed in a trailer immediately adjacent to the conventional water
treatment facility located within the Village of Vilna (see Figure 2 for a schematic representation;
Appendix B for process description).
Sequential stages of the pilot-plant were sampled during three weeks of the study (raw intake
water and post-fluidized bed samples were collected for five weeks). Generally, microcystin was
detected in raw water and all stages of the pilot-scale water treatment plant during much of the
sampling period. Raw water toxin concentrations were moderate during the first three weeks
(0.39-1.0 µg MCLR eq./L), and declined to low levels during the final two weeks (Table A21).
In all cases, toxin concentrations immediately following the fluidized bed bio-filter showed a
variable degree of reduction compared to raw water. Also, microcystin in water subject to GAC
filtration were generally lower than in water with UV treatment.
20. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 11
Conventional treatment at Vilna also yielded variable reductions in microcystin levels during the
five-week period (Table A21). This contrasts with the longer-term results for Vilna (Table A19)
and suggests that more detailed or frequent sampling may be needed to depict microcystin levels.
Overall, the results are somewhat inconclusive, but suggest an apparent improvement in bio-
filtration efficiency and a decline in conventional treatment efficiency with declining (or low)
influent microcystin concentrations. These interpretations should be considered preliminary;
research is continuing through 2002.
Many factors can affect water treatment efficiency. Foremost to be considered is the proportion
of microcystin contributed by intracellular versus extracellular fractions. Mechanisms for
effective removal of intracellular toxin from influent water (i.e., isolation of intact cyanobacteria
by floatation or filtration), differ from those required for extracellular toxin (i.e., microcystin
absorption via GAC or PAC and oxidation via ozonation or UV treatment). Pre-treatment
methods relying on oxidative degradation (such as ozone treatment) can result in cyanobacterial
cell lysis and a subsequent increase in dissolved, extracellular toxin concentration. Though no
attempt was made to differentiate between the toxin fractions in raw water, it is possible that a
proportionately greater concentration of intracellular toxin existed in samples collected during
the first three weeks of the bio-filter study. The lysis of cells caused by ozone pre-treatment
could explain the elevated microcystin levels observed during this period, compared to the
conventional process which lacks ozone pre-treatment.
21. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 12
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The objectives were to determine the prevalence of microcystin in municipal drinking water
sources and whether current water treatment practices are adequate in removing these toxins.
Our results indicate that low to moderate concentrations of microcystin are common in the
majority (67%) of raw water samples collected during the study and that the toxin remains
detectable beyond the warm water season and throughout autumn. This is a significant finding
as past research regarding cyanobacterial toxins has focused primarily on warm summer months
(it is a common misconception that toxic cyanobacterial blooms only occur during calm, hot
summer days).
In contrast to source water, microcystin appeared less often (10%) and at lower concentrations in
treated water. These results indicate that conventional water treatment practices remove some
toxin from contaminated source waters. Municipalities employing additional and sophisticated
water treatment technologies (e.g., PAC, GAC, UV and ozonation) appear to remove more
microcystin than those relying on conventional methods only. Some technology, such as
membrane filtration, may be unsuitable or otherwise ineffective at removing toxins.
Nevertheless, toxin concentrations in treated drinking water never exceeded the guideline
(1.5 µg/L) recently adopted by Health Canada (Health Canada, 1998).
Further monitoring should be conducted on raw waters that develop cyanobacteria blooms and
municipal drinking water produced from such sources. Inclusion of winter samples may be
warranted because toxic Microcystis colonies congregate on sediments during winter months.
Relatively few communities were included in this study. In order to gain further insight to the
prevalence of microcystin in treated water, it is suggested that a broader range of communities be
assessed.
The discrepancy in results between weekly sampling and more frequent sampling from the Vilna
treated water indicates that weekly sampling can miss the occurrence of microtoxin in water and
suggests that more frequent sampling is needed.
Beyond the aforementioned recommendations, further research is needed with respect to
reservoir management, treatment efficacy and detailed aspects of the occurrence and distribution
of the toxins (e.g., there is a need to determine the fate of toxic cyanobacterial cells/colonies in
the drinking water treatment process; resolve pathways of microcystin reduction by various
drinking water treatment processes; determine the relative importance of microcystin fractions
[dissolved extracellular and intracellular toxins]; determine toxin analogues responsible for
toxicity; survey for the presence of other cyanobacterial toxins (i.e., anatoxins and saxitoxins);
and extend the surveys to early summer months, particularly in southern Alberta).
22. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 13
5.0 REFERENCES
An, J.S., and Carmichael, W.W. 1994. Use of a colorimetric protein phosphatase inhibition assay
and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for the study of microcystins and
nodularins. Toxicon, 32, 1495-1507.
Bourke, A.T.C., Hawes, R.B., Neilson, A., and Stallman, N.D. 1983. An outbreak of hepato-
enteritis (the Palm Island mystery disease) possibly caused by algal intoxication.
Toxicon, 3, 45-48.
Carmichael, W.W. 2001. Assessment of blue-green algal toxins in raw and finished drinking
water. AWWARF project #256 (www.auwarf.com/exsums/256htm).
Codd, G.A., Bell, S.G., Kaya, K., Ward, C.J., Beattie, K.A., and Metcalf, J.S. 1999.
Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health. Eur. J. Phycol., 34, 405-
415.
Falconer, I.R., Runnegar, M.T.C., and Huynh, V.L. 1983a. Effectiveness of activated carbon in
the removal of algal toxin from potable water supplies: a pilot plant investigation.
Proceedings of the 10th
Australian Water and Wastewater Association Federal
Convention, pp. (26)1-(26)8. Australian Water and Wastewater Association Inc.,
Sydney, Australia.
Falconer, I.R., Beresford, A.M., and Runnegar, M.T.C. 1983b. Evidence of liver damage by
toxin from a bloom of the blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa. Med. J. Aus., 1,
511-514.
Health Canada, 1998. Cyanobacterial Toxins – Microcystins in Drinking Water. Public
Comment Document, 25 pp. Federal – Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water,
Ottawa, Canada.
Himberg, K., Keijola, A.-M., Hiisvirta, L., Pyysalo, H., and Sivonen, K. 1989. The effect of
water treatment processes on the removal of hepatotoxins from Microcystis and
Oscillatoria cyanobacteria: a laboratory study. Water Res., 23, 979-984.
Hrudey, S.E., Lambert, T.W., and Kenefick, S.L. 1994. Health risk assessment of microcystins in
drinking water supplies. In: Toxic cyanobacteria – a global perspective, pp. 7-12.
Australian Centre for Water Quality Research, Adelaide, Australia.
Jones, G. 1996. Toxic algae study summary: Manitoba Environment. Submitted to Health
Canada, February.
Kenefick, S.L., Hrudey, S.E., Peterson, H.G., and Prepas, E.E. 1993. Toxin release from
Microcystis aeruginosa after chemical treatment. Water Sci. Technol., 27, 433-440.
23. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 14
Kotak, B.G., Kenefick, S.L., Fritz, D.L., Rousseaux, C.G., Prepas, E.E., and Hrudey, S.E. 1993.
Occurrence and toxicological evaluation of cyanobacterial toxins in Alberta lakes and
farm dugouts. Water Res., 27, 495-506.
Lam, A.K.-Y., Prepas, E.E., Spink, D., and Hrudey, S.E. 1995. Chemical control of hepatotoxic
phytoplankton blooms: implications for human health. Water Res., 29, 1845-1854.
Lambert, T.W., Holmes, C.F.B., and Hrudey, S.E. 1996. Adsorption of microcystin-LR by
activated carbon and removal in full-scale water treatment. Water Res., 30, 1411-
1422.
Lambert, T.W., Boland, M.P., Holmes, C.F.B., and Hrudey, S.E. 1994. Quantitation of the
microcystin hepatotoxins in water at environmentally relevant concentrations with the
protein phosphatase bioassay. Environ. Sci. Technol., 28, 753-755.
Robertson, P.K.J., Lawton, L.A., Cornish, B.J.P.A., and Jaspars, M. 1998. Processes influencing
the destruction of microcystin-LR by TiO2 photocatalysis. J. Phytochem. Phytobiol.
A, 116, 215-219.
Rositano, J., Nicholson, B.C., and Pieronne, P. 1998. Destruction of cyanobacterial toxins by
ozone. Ozone Science and Engineering, 20, 223-238.
Tisdale, E.S. 1931. Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston W. Va., occurring
simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions. Am. J. Public Health,
21, 198-200.
Ueno, Y., Nagata, S., Tsutsumi, T., Hasegawa, A., Watanabe, M.F., Park, H.-D., Chen, G.-C.,
Chen, G., and Yu, S.-Z. 1996. Detection of microcystins, a blue-green algal
hepatotoxin, in drinking water sampled in Haimen and Fusui, endemic areas of
primary liver cancer in China, by highly sensitive immunoassay. Carcinogenesis, 17,
1317-1321.
Zurawell, R.W., Kotak, B.G., and Prepas, E.E. 1999. Influence of lake trophic status on the
occurrence of microcystin-LR in the tissue of pulmonate snails. Freshwater Biol., 42,
707-718.
24. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 15
APPENDICES
25. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 16
Appendix A Data summaries for communities included in the microcystin study
Table A1 Data summary of Microcystin in raw water
Site # Municipality
Number
of
Samples
Mean Microcystin
Concentration
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Range in Microcystin
Concentration
(µg MCLR eq./L)
1 Town of Swan Hills 6 <0.07 <0.07
2 Town of Strathmore 7 0.08 <0.07 – 0.20
3 Village of Rockyford 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.13
4 Town of Gleichen 5 0.48 <0.07 – 1.8
5 Village of Carmangay 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.13
6 Village of Lomond 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.10
7 Town of Picture Butte 10 0.11 0.09 – 0.14
8 Town of Taber 10 0.11 <0.07 – 0.47
9 Village of Mirror 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.08
10 City of Wetaskiwin 10 5.04 0.09 – 14.8
11 Village of Hay Lakes 10 0.24 <0.07 – 1.5
12 Village of Holden 10 0.20 0.07 – 0.45
13 Town of Viking 10 0.07 <0.07 – 0.23
14 City of Camrose 10 1.52 0.14 – 3.5
15 Town of St. Paul 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.12
16 Town of Bonnyville 10 0.66 0.10 – 1.1
17 Village of Vilna 10 0.01 0.21 – 2.3
18 Village of Boyle 10 0.24 <0.07 – 0.60
26. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 17
Table A2 Data summary of microcystin in treated water
Site # Municipality
Number
of
Samples
Mean Microcystin
Concentration
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Range in Microcystin
Concentration
(µg MCLR eq./L)
1 Town of Swan Hills 6 <0.07 <0.07
2 Town of Strathmore 7 <0.07 <0.07
3 Village of Rockyford 10 <0.07 <0.07
4 Town of Gleichen 5 <0.07 <0.07
5 Village of Carmangay 10 <0.07 <0.07
6 Village of Lomond 10 <0.07 <0.07
7 Town of Picture Butte 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.12
8 Town of Taber 10 <0.07 <0.07
9 Village of Mirror 10 <0.07 <0.07
10 City of Wetaskiwin 10 0.13 <0.07 – 0.5
11 Village of Hay Lakes 10 <0.07 <0.07
12 Village of Holden 10 <0.07 <0.07
13 Town of Viking 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.08
14 City of Camrose 10 <0.07 <0.07
15 Town of St. Paul 10 <0.07 <0.07
16 Town of Bonnyville 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.08
17 Village of Vilna 10 <0.07 <0.07 – 0.09
18 Village of Boyle 10 <0.07 <0.07
27. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 18
Table A3 Town of Swan Hills data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/24/2001 <0.07 <0.07
8/30/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/6/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/17/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/20/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/27/2001 <0.07 <0.07
28. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 19
Table A4 Town of Strathmore data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 0.10 <0.07
8/27/2001 0.07 <0.07
9/2/2001 0.20 <0.07
9/7/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/11/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/17/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/24/2001 <0.07 <0.07
29. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 20
Table A5 Village of Rockyford data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
9/9/2001 0.07 <0.07
9/17/2001 0.10 <0.07
9/24/2001 0.09 <0.07
9/30/2001 0.13 <0.07
10/7/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/14/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/21/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/28/2001 <0.07 <0.07
11/4/2001 <0.07 <0.07
11/11/2001 <0.07 <0.07
30. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 21
Table A6 Town of Gleichen data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.24 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.14 <0.07
9/7/2001 1.8 <0.07
9/24/2001 0.19 <0.07
10/1/2001 <0.07 <0.07
31. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 22
Table A7 Village of Carmangay data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.08 <0.07
8/22/2001 0.10 <0.07
8/29/2001 0.13 <0.07
9/5/2001 0.10 <0.07
9/12/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/26/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/3/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/10/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/17/2001 <0.07 <0.07
32. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 23
Table A8 Village of Lomond data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/18/2001 0.09 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.07 <0.07
8/31/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/7/2001 0.10 <0.07
9/14/2001 0.09 <0.07
9/22/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/28/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/5/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/12/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
33. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 24
Table A9 Town of Picture Butte data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.09 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.14 <0.07
8/31/2001 0.10 0.07
9/7/2001 0.10 0.12
9/14/2001 0.12 <0.07
9/21/2001 0.09 <0.07
9/28/2001 0.10 <0.07
10/4/2001 0.09 0.08
10/11/2001 0.10 0.07
10/19/2001 0.12 0.08
34. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 25
Table A10 Town of Taber data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.10 <0.07
8/22/2001 0.13 <0.07
8/29/2001 0.12 <0.07
9/5/2001 0.09 <0.07
9/12/2001 0.47 <0.07
9/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/26/2001 0.13 <0.07
10/3/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/10/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/17/2001 <0.07 <0.07
35. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 26
Table A11 Village of Mirror data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 <0.07 <0.07
8/24/2001 <0.07 <0.07
8/30/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/7/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/14/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/22/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/28/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/7/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/12/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
36. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 27
Table A12 City of Wetaskiwin data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 12.5 0.50
8/24/2001 14.8 0.25
8/30/2001 7.79 0.15
9/6/2001 11.8 0.20
9/14/2001 0.10 0.10
9/20/2001 1.2 <0.07
9/28/2001 1.7 0.07
10/5/2001 0.23 <0.07
10/12/2001 0.14 <0.07
10/19/2001 0.09 <0.07
37. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 28
Table A13 Village of Hay Lakes data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.11 <0.07
8/20/2001 1.5 <0.07
8/27/2001 0.44 <0.07
9/4/2001 0.11 <0.07
9/10/2001 0.15 <0.07
9/17/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/24/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/1/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/8/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/15/2001 <0.07 <0.07
38. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 29
Table A14 Village of Holden data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/17/2001 0.36 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.08 <0.07
8/31/2001 0.45 <0.07
9/7/2001 0.26 <0.07
9/13/2001 0.25 <0.07
9/21/2001 0.07 <0.07
9/28/2001 0.08 <0.07
10/5/2001 0.08 <0.07
10/12/2001 0.12 <0.07
10/19/2001 0.30 <0.07
39. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 30
Table A15 Town of Viking data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 0.07 <0.07
8/24/2001 <0.07 <0.07
8/31/2001 0.08 <0.07
9/7/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/13/2001 0.07 <0.07
9/21/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/28/2001 0.08 0.08
10/5/2001 0.23 0.08
10/12/2001 0.15 <0.07
10/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
40. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 31
Table A16 City of Camrose data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 1.7 <0.07
8/24/2001 2.0 <0.07
8/27/2001 3.5 <0.07
9/5/2001 2.4 <0.07
9/12/2001 1.3 <0.07
9/19/2001 1.8 <0.07
9/24/2001 1.6 <0.07
10/5/2001 0.89 <0.07
10/12/2001 0.14 <0.07
10/19/2001 0.28 <0.07
41. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 32
Table A17 Town of St. Paul data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 <0.07 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.12 <0.07
8/31/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/7/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/14/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/21/2001 <0.07 <0.07
9/28/2001 0.08 <0.07
10/5/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/12/2001 0.10 <0.07
10/19/2001 <0.07 <0.07
42. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 33
Table A18 Town of Bonnyville data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/23/2001 0.53 <0.07
8/31/2001 0.93 <0.07
9/1/2001 0.85 <0.07
9/8/2001 1.1 0.07
9/16/2001 1.1 <0.07
9/23/2001 0.69 0.08
9/30/2001 0.49 <0.07
10/7/2001 0.10 <0.07
10/14/2001 0.64 <0.07
10/21/2001 0.12 <0.07
43. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 34
Table A19 Village of Vilna data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 0.94 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.80 <0.07
8/27/2001 1.3 <0.07
9/3/2001 2.3 0.09
9/10/2001 2.0 <0.07
9/17/2001 0.51 <0.07
9/28/2001 0.39 <0.07
10/1/2001 1.1 <0.07
10/16/2001 0.63 <0.07
10/25/2001 0.21 <0.07
44. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 35
Table A20 Village of Boyle data summary
Sampling Date
Microcystin Concentration
Raw Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
Microcystin Concentration
Treated Water
(µg MCLR eq./L)
8/20/2001 0.60 <0.07
8/24/2001 0.48 <0.07
8/29/2001 0.24 <0.07
9/5/2001 0.26 <0.07
9/13/2001 0.21 <0.07
9/19/2001 0.36 <0.07
9/26/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/3/2001 0.15 <0.07
10/11/2001 <0.07 <0.07
10/17/2001 0.14 <0.07
45. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 36
Table A21 Biological filter pilot-plant data summary
Microcystin Concentration (µg MCLR eq./L)
Treatment Stage
Collected
9/20/2001
Collected
9/27/2001
Collected
10/03/2001
Collected
10/12/2001
Collected
10/18/2001
Raw Water 0.41 0.39 1.0 0.19 0.09
Post OC/DOF Treatment 0.67 0.24 0.11
Post Bio-filtration 0.22 0.07 0.58 0.09 <0.07
Post Sand Filtration 0.35 0.14 0.55
Post GAC Treatment 0.30 0.24 0.31
Post UV Treatment 0.44 0.41 0.15
Conventional Treatment <0.07 0.08 0.12 0.09 0.1
46. An Initial Assessment of Microcystin in Raw and Treated Municipal Drinking Water Derived from
Eutrophic Surface Waters in Alberta 37
Appendix B Bio-filter pilot plant process description*
A variable speed progressive cavity pump was used to control the inlet flow from the raw water
reservoir. This supply was directed to the bottom of the inside tube of the flotation column,
where it joined with the ozonated recycle flow. The combined streams overflowed into the
outer annulus that served as a counter-current clarification zone in the flotation system. A
pressure relief valve was attached to the top, froth-collection part of the column. Froth was
removed at timed intervals either by opening a solenoid valve or operating a peristaltic pump.
Water from the bottom of the flotation column flowed upward through the fluidized sand
biofilter and discharged into a stainless steel reservoir. The recycle flow was drawn from this
reservoir by a high-pressure pump and passed through a venturi eductor before being directed to
the bottom of the inside tube of the flotation column. Here the water pressure was released
through a nozzle and the flow impinged on a plate near the point where the raw water was
introduced. The eductor was used to inject oxygen and ozone into the high-pressure recycle loop
to produce supersaturated flow. Downstream of the nozzle micro-bubbles were formed as gas
was released from solution. Gas transfer and particle attachment occurred as water flowed
upward through the inside tube; more particle attachment and floc growth took place as bubbles
rose and expanded in the low-velocity, counter-current flow regime of the outer annulus. A
separate pump and pressure tank were used to direct flow through the alternative treatment trains
downstream of the reservoir. The flow passed first through two parallel sand pressure filters
before splitting into two paths. Half the flow was directed via a venturi and contact column to a
GAC contactor, the other half through a UV chamber.
* Courtesy of the Alberta Research Council, Water Treatment Technologies