This study examines the determinants of education expenditures in Turkey using household survey data from 2003, 2007, and 2012. Tobit regression models are estimated separately for income quartiles. The results show that the income elasticity of education expenditures peaks in middle-income households and decreases at both ends of the income distribution. Specifically, the elasticity is less than one for the lowest-income households but greater than one for middle-income households, providing evidence that the demand for education rises more than proportionately with income for middle-income families. The estimates vary somewhat across years but generally show this pattern.
Presentación de Juan León, Investigador asociado del estudio Niños del Milenio / Young Lives de GRADE, en la Universidad del Pacífico para estudiantes de maestría y doctorado de programa de Educational Leadership de la Universidad de Louisville en USA.
Experiencing tough history and indigence after war, investing in and training human resources became a
priority task for the government. Education has thus been key in the reconstruction and growth of the
country. While Korea quickly attained high level of enrollment and performance, this success didn’t come
without drawbacks. The intense competition in education gradually led to seriously jeopardize student’s well-being. In this context, this presentation will assess and diagnose the strength and weakness of the Korean education system and provide recommendations focusing on the following question: How can Korea combine outstanding academic performance with students’ well-being?
An overview of EFA in Kenya from the perspective of UNESCO at the IAU Workshop on higher education for EFA, in Nairobi, Kenya.
Presented by Yayoi Segi-Vltchek, UNESCO
Presentación de Juan León, Investigador asociado del estudio Niños del Milenio / Young Lives de GRADE, en la Universidad del Pacífico para estudiantes de maestría y doctorado de programa de Educational Leadership de la Universidad de Louisville en USA.
Experiencing tough history and indigence after war, investing in and training human resources became a
priority task for the government. Education has thus been key in the reconstruction and growth of the
country. While Korea quickly attained high level of enrollment and performance, this success didn’t come
without drawbacks. The intense competition in education gradually led to seriously jeopardize student’s well-being. In this context, this presentation will assess and diagnose the strength and weakness of the Korean education system and provide recommendations focusing on the following question: How can Korea combine outstanding academic performance with students’ well-being?
An overview of EFA in Kenya from the perspective of UNESCO at the IAU Workshop on higher education for EFA, in Nairobi, Kenya.
Presented by Yayoi Segi-Vltchek, UNESCO
Equity and Quality in Education: Supporting Disadvantaged Students and Schools EduSkills OECD
Investing in equity in education pays off
Improving equity and reducing school failure is a policy priority, but...
There are many different policies and strategies, yet no common knowledge base of what works
Countries face challenges in adopting and implementing policies to improve equity in education
Supporting disadvantaged schools and students is a lever out of the crisis.
There is a need for clear policy responses
Education at a Glance 2019 - Higher EducationEduSkills OECD
Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators is the authoritative source for information on the state of education around the world. It provides data on the structure, finances and performance of education systems in OECD and partner countries. With more than 100 charts and tables, Education at a Glance 2019 imparts key information on the output of educational institutions, the impact of learning across countries, and worldwide access, participation and progression in education. It also investigates the financial resources invested in education, as well as teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.
Implications of the K to 12 Education Reform on the Massification of Philippi...Mark Raygan Garcia
This is a summative presentation of results of a research conducted with seven private universities in the Philippines as institutional respondents. The research focuses on the implications of the K to 12 education reform on the massification of Philippine higher education. Massificaiton in this research is contextualized to the following: higher enrollment into universities, particularly of lower-income students, regard for a university degree and the same vis-a-vis the belief that obtaining one facilitates employment, and sustainability of the operations of HEIs. In analyzing the surfaced implications against factors influencing the educational landscape in the Philippines, the research (as would be discussed in a paper that is being developed) reflects on the concept of vertical differentiation, the economic models of comparative advantage and cost-benefit analysis, and the theory of gradual institutional change.
Special thanks to the presidents and designated official respondents of Miriam College and St. Paul University Philippines in Luzon, Central Philippine University, Silliman University and University of San Carlos in the Visayas, and Notre Dame University and Xavier University in Mindanao.
For use of the PowerPoint pending research paper completion, e-mail: markraygan@yahoo.com.
The Education Policy Outlook 2018 - Putting Student Learning at the CentreEduSkills OECD
Taking the students’ perspective, Education Policy Outlook 2018: Putting Student Learning at the Centre analyses the evolution of key education priorities and key education policies in 43 education systems. It compares more recent developments in education policy ecosystems (mainly between 2015 and 2017) with various education policies adopted between 2008 and 2014. This report includes around 200 policies spanning from early childhood education and care (ECEC) to higher education and lifelong learning on topics such as: improving the quality and access to ECEC, promoting education success for all students, reducing the negative impact of some system-level policies and practices, increasing completion of upper secondary education, developing quality vocational education and training, enhancing the quality of tertiary education, supporting transitions across education pathways and the labour market.
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How can teachers get the best out of their students? Insights from TALIS 2018EduSkills OECD
Developing, maintaining and promoting a good professional teaching workforce is imperative for education systems around the world.
However, in compulsory schooling, teachers and principals face a range of challenges at each level of education, some unique to the level, others more broadly experienced throughout school – but all can have an effect on their students.
What are some of the educational challenges unique to each education level? What are the factors that could explain differences in the levels of professionalism across education levels?
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director for Education and Skills, presents data from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 findings, looking specifically at primary and upper secondary education.
Read the report -- https://oe.cd/41e
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The aim of the presentation is to identify key considerations and lessons from a Zambian perspective in the TVET sector of the role of curriculum development for online learning
Were socio-economically advantaged students better equipped to deal with lear...EduSkills OECD
According to data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), most students in 2018 responded that they believe in their ability to get through a difficult situation and are motivated to learn as much as possible.
But socio-economically disadvantaged students exhibit less of these beliefs and dispositions.
This may have serious implications for the unequal distribution of learning losses during the pandemic, meaning that poorer students may have been left behind to an even greater degree than we thought.
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A coordinated approach to skills issues: the OECD Centre for Skills EduSkills OECD
A PowerPoint by Ms. Montserrat Gomendio, OECD Deputy Director for Education and Skills & Head of the Skills Centre, presented at the Skills Summit 2018, Porto.
SESSION 3: IMPLEMENT – Towards better skills policies for tomorrow’s world
Objective: Discuss the major challenges in the implementation of education and skills policies raised by the digital transformation, identify contentious issues and how they can be solved, and agree on specific actions
Career readiness during COVID: How schools can help students enter the labour...EduSkills OECD
Young people today have never left education more ambitious and highly qualified, but even before the pandemic many struggled to find good work. The COVID-19 crisis has made it more urgent than ever for schools to help students prosper as they move through education and into the labour market.
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Watch the webinar here: https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/#Previous
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Andreas Schleicher presents the latest OECD TALIS analysis that shows how teachers with different characteristics and practices tend to concentrate in different schools, and how much access students with different socio-economic backgrounds have to good teachers. He then explores how we can change education policy to distribute strong teachers more fairly.
Read the report here https://oe.cd/EduEquity
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Measuring innovation in education and understanding how it works is essential to improve the quality of the education sector. Monitoring systematically how pedagogical practices evolve would considerably increase the international education knowledge base. We need to examine whether, and how, practices are changing within classrooms and educational organisations and how students use learning resources. We should know much more about how teachers change their professional development practices, how schools change their ways to relate to parents, and, more generally, to what extent change and innovation are linked to better educational outcomes. This would help policy makers to better target interventions and resources, and get quick feedback on whether reforms do change educational practices as expected. This would enable us to better understand the role of innovation in education.
Equity and Quality in Education: Supporting Disadvantaged Students and Schools EduSkills OECD
Investing in equity in education pays off
Improving equity and reducing school failure is a policy priority, but...
There are many different policies and strategies, yet no common knowledge base of what works
Countries face challenges in adopting and implementing policies to improve equity in education
Supporting disadvantaged schools and students is a lever out of the crisis.
There is a need for clear policy responses
Education at a Glance 2019 - Higher EducationEduSkills OECD
Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators is the authoritative source for information on the state of education around the world. It provides data on the structure, finances and performance of education systems in OECD and partner countries. With more than 100 charts and tables, Education at a Glance 2019 imparts key information on the output of educational institutions, the impact of learning across countries, and worldwide access, participation and progression in education. It also investigates the financial resources invested in education, as well as teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.
Implications of the K to 12 Education Reform on the Massification of Philippi...Mark Raygan Garcia
This is a summative presentation of results of a research conducted with seven private universities in the Philippines as institutional respondents. The research focuses on the implications of the K to 12 education reform on the massification of Philippine higher education. Massificaiton in this research is contextualized to the following: higher enrollment into universities, particularly of lower-income students, regard for a university degree and the same vis-a-vis the belief that obtaining one facilitates employment, and sustainability of the operations of HEIs. In analyzing the surfaced implications against factors influencing the educational landscape in the Philippines, the research (as would be discussed in a paper that is being developed) reflects on the concept of vertical differentiation, the economic models of comparative advantage and cost-benefit analysis, and the theory of gradual institutional change.
Special thanks to the presidents and designated official respondents of Miriam College and St. Paul University Philippines in Luzon, Central Philippine University, Silliman University and University of San Carlos in the Visayas, and Notre Dame University and Xavier University in Mindanao.
For use of the PowerPoint pending research paper completion, e-mail: markraygan@yahoo.com.
The Education Policy Outlook 2018 - Putting Student Learning at the CentreEduSkills OECD
Taking the students’ perspective, Education Policy Outlook 2018: Putting Student Learning at the Centre analyses the evolution of key education priorities and key education policies in 43 education systems. It compares more recent developments in education policy ecosystems (mainly between 2015 and 2017) with various education policies adopted between 2008 and 2014. This report includes around 200 policies spanning from early childhood education and care (ECEC) to higher education and lifelong learning on topics such as: improving the quality and access to ECEC, promoting education success for all students, reducing the negative impact of some system-level policies and practices, increasing completion of upper secondary education, developing quality vocational education and training, enhancing the quality of tertiary education, supporting transitions across education pathways and the labour market.
Technology and education in developing countriesFrancesc Pedró
Techniology and education in developing countries. Describes the challenges in relation to Education For All (2015) and the role that technology could play. Presents the four pillars of UNESCO's Strategy in this domain: policies, teachers, mobile learning, and open educational resources.
How can teachers get the best out of their students? Insights from TALIS 2018EduSkills OECD
Developing, maintaining and promoting a good professional teaching workforce is imperative for education systems around the world.
However, in compulsory schooling, teachers and principals face a range of challenges at each level of education, some unique to the level, others more broadly experienced throughout school – but all can have an effect on their students.
What are some of the educational challenges unique to each education level? What are the factors that could explain differences in the levels of professionalism across education levels?
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director for Education and Skills, presents data from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 findings, looking specifically at primary and upper secondary education.
Read the report -- https://oe.cd/41e
Curriculum Development for Online Learning: Considerations and Lessons from t...Gabriel Konayuma
The aim of the presentation is to identify key considerations and lessons from a Zambian perspective in the TVET sector of the role of curriculum development for online learning
Were socio-economically advantaged students better equipped to deal with lear...EduSkills OECD
According to data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), most students in 2018 responded that they believe in their ability to get through a difficult situation and are motivated to learn as much as possible.
But socio-economically disadvantaged students exhibit less of these beliefs and dispositions.
This may have serious implications for the unequal distribution of learning losses during the pandemic, meaning that poorer students may have been left behind to an even greater degree than we thought.
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director for Education and Skills, presents a new analysis of PISA 2018 data and discusses what it can tell us about how prepared students across the world were for the hardships of learning during the COVID-19 crisis.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A coordinated approach to skills issues: the OECD Centre for Skills EduSkills OECD
A PowerPoint by Ms. Montserrat Gomendio, OECD Deputy Director for Education and Skills & Head of the Skills Centre, presented at the Skills Summit 2018, Porto.
SESSION 3: IMPLEMENT – Towards better skills policies for tomorrow’s world
Objective: Discuss the major challenges in the implementation of education and skills policies raised by the digital transformation, identify contentious issues and how they can be solved, and agree on specific actions
Career readiness during COVID: How schools can help students enter the labour...EduSkills OECD
Young people today have never left education more ambitious and highly qualified, but even before the pandemic many struggled to find good work. The COVID-19 crisis has made it more urgent than ever for schools to help students prosper as they move through education and into the labour market.
Education systems can help all students compete more effectively in the labour market. Schools can do more to help young people become more attractive to employers, but the message is not getting through and new waves of austerity and employer retraction will create new barriers to effective action. International datasets can help to identify indicators among teenagers that are linked with employment outcomes. This presentation accompanies a webinar that introduces significant new OECD work designed to enable and encourage data-driven career guidance.
Watch the webinar here: https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/#Previous
Mending the Education Divide: Getting strong teachers to the schools that nee...EduSkills OECD
Teachers can shape their students' educational careers. Research shows that children taught by different teachers often experience very different educational outcomes. This begs the questions: how are teachers assigned to schools in different countries? And to what extent do students from different backgrounds have access to good teachers?
Andreas Schleicher presents the latest OECD TALIS analysis that shows how teachers with different characteristics and practices tend to concentrate in different schools, and how much access students with different socio-economic backgrounds have to good teachers. He then explores how we can change education policy to distribute strong teachers more fairly.
Read the report here https://oe.cd/EduEquity
Scotland's Curriculum for Excellence: Into the Future. Report presentationBeatriz Pont
Students in Scotland (UK) engage in learning through Curriculum for Excellence (CfE), which aims to provide them with a holistic, coherent, and future-oriented approach to learning between the ages of 3 and 18. CfE offers an inspiring and widely supported philosophy of education. Schools design their own curriculum based on a common framework which allows for effective curricular practices. In 2020, Scotland invited the OECD to assess the implementation of CfE in primary and secondary schools to understand how school curricula have been designed and implemented in recent years. This report analyses the progress made with CfE since 2015, building upon several months of observations in Scotland, the existing literature and experiences from other OECD countries. The OECD analysis and recommendations aim to support Scotland as it further enhances CfE to achieve its potential for the present and future of its learners. Just as Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence was among the pioneers of 21st century learning, its most recent developments hold valuable lessons for other education systems and their own curriculum policies.
This presentation was given by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin at the Public Conference “Innovation in education : What has changed in the classroom in the past decade?”.
Measuring innovation in education and understanding how it works is essential to improve the quality of the education sector. Monitoring systematically how pedagogical practices evolve would considerably increase the international education knowledge base. We need to examine whether, and how, practices are changing within classrooms and educational organisations and how students use learning resources. We should know much more about how teachers change their professional development practices, how schools change their ways to relate to parents, and, more generally, to what extent change and innovation are linked to better educational outcomes. This would help policy makers to better target interventions and resources, and get quick feedback on whether reforms do change educational practices as expected. This would enable us to better understand the role of innovation in education.
Amongst OECD countries, the case of Turkey is of paramount interest. With 30% of the population aged under 14, 10.5 million pupils enrolled in primary education, a rapid migration from rural to urban areas and a high fertility rate the Turkish educational system is facing big challenges in the coming years. This presentation starts analyzing the structural transformation that Turkish educational system encountered in the last century, and then it investigates what are the most pressing issues for the students and for the governance of the educational system and tries to understand how institutions could adapt to better cope with the present challenges.
Presentation done concerning educational reform in areas of the curriculum. Based in T&T. Deals with reform within ECCE, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Educational Sectors.
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Presentation of findings from Young Lives by Virginia Morrow and Paul Dornan, at the New School New York on 5 November 2014. Further info: http://www.younglives.org.uk/news/news/event-advancing-equity-for-children
Disrupted Futures 2023 | Delivering equality of opportunity in educationEduSkills OECD
This presentation from the OECD Disrupted Futures 2023: International lessons on how schools can best equip students for their working lives conference looks at How career guidance can best respond to social inequalities: new OECD analysis and guidance "Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Education. Presented by Esther Doyle and Carol Guildea.
Discover the videos and other sessions from the OECD Disrupted Futures 2023 conference at https://www.oecd.org/education/career-readiness/conferences-webinars/disrupted-futures-2023.htm
Find out more about our work on Career Readiness https://www.oecd.org/education/career-readiness/
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Determinants of education expenditures and private vs. public divide in educational outcomes in Turkey
1. Determinants of education expenditures
and private vs. public divide in
educational outcomes in Turkey
Elif Öznur Acar, Cankaya University
Seyit Mümin Cilasun , Atilim University
Burak Günalp, Hacettepe University
July 26, 2015
ERF, Cairo
2. 1.Introduction
Turkey has a demographic window of opportunity
• working age population will rise until 2040s.
• absorbing the new entrants into the labor market
• high-quality education became crucial
Turkey’s educational outlook is still bleak
• Average years of schooling is 7 years
• Low enrollment rates, but climbed rapidly after 1997
• Poor PISA performance
• Equity issues in access to education
2
Chapter 1: IntroductionDeterminants of education expenditures in Turkey Introduction
3. Turkey’s topmost challenge improve quality & equity of
education system, which requires more/better investment.
Public spending on education has been rising
• % of education expenditures rose from 6.5 % in 2002 to 9 % in 2012
• 16.5 million students enrolled in primary and secondary education
• extension the years of compulsory education after 1997
Private out of pocket spending on education has also grew
• education in hh’ expenditures rose from 2% in 2003 to 2.4% in 2012.
• students attending private schools doubled from 1.7% to 3.3%
• private schools rose from 2.7% to 6.5% over 2002-2011 period.
• private schooling could aggravate the already low levels of
intergenerational mobility in education and income
3
Chapter 1: IntroductionDeterminants of education expenditures in Turkey Introduction
4. Motivation, method and contributions
• Motivation
• To investigate the determinants of household expenditures
• To see whether income elasticity of education expenditures changed
• Method
– 2003, 2007, 2012 Household Budget Survey data
– Tobit regression of education expenditures by income groups using a
# of household characteristics
• Contribution
• Focus on demand for education, determinants of educ. expenditures
• Adds to the limited literature on Turkey
• Use Tobit model which considers possible left-censoring in the data
4
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Motivation, methodolgy and contributions
5. 2. Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
5
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Population(million)
Fertilityandmortalityrates
(per1000people)
Population
Fertility rate
Mortality rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
Dependency rate (% of working age population)Fertility and mortality rates, population
• Youthful population of 77.7 m with 24.3 percent of its people <15 years old
• Undergoing a demographic transition process
• Potential for demographic dividend between 2005 and 2040
7. 7
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
• Turkish modernization: state-centric educational project
– The Law for the Unification of Education, 1924
• Compulsory primary education from 5 to 8 years, 1997
– to enhance education opportunities for all children
• Decentralization reform, 2004
– local authorities given increased roles and responsibilities
• “Constructivist education reform”, 2005
– extension of the secondary school from 3 to 4 years
– implementation of a new curriculum for elementary education
– net schooling rate in primary education: 98.7% in 2011-2012
– net enrollment rate for secondary education increased
• “4+4+4 Law”, 2012
– compulsory education is extended to 12 years, 3 levels of 4 years
– students can enter technical or vocational schools in 5th grade
– age of entry to primary school is lowered to 66 months
8. • Critical challenges await on quality and equity issues
8
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
63
66
69
53
42
47
51
29
3538
46
21
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
AverageScienceReading Math
2003 2009 2012
430 427
451 452
415
421
440 444
505
500 501 499
495
489 490 489
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
2003 2006 2009 2012
TR-Boys TR-Girls
OECD Average-Boys OECD Average-Girls
423 424
445
448
441
447
464
475
454
463
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
2003 2006 2009 2012
Math Reading Science
Mean PISA scores in Turkey, by test
Mean PISA scores, by genderGap between Turkey and OECD average
Note: 40 points in PISA are equivalent one school year
52.2 52.1
42.1 42
36.8
32.2
24.5
21.6
46.6
30
26.4
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
2003 2006 2009 2012
Math Reading Science
Share of low achievers ( Below Level 2)
in Turkey%
GapinPISApointswithOECD
9. • Inequalities between social groups in academic achievement
9
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
511
443
420
405
387
514
467
451
435
408
536
503
488
463
443
350
400
450
500
550
3
93 points
1 542
124 points
2003
2012
2009
Averagescore(alldisciplines)
Household income quintiles
25
27
11
16
16
20
3843
49
59 21
27
29
22
19 21
10
8
6
16
6
Below Level 2
21
100%
4
Level 4
3
Level 3
1
Level 5 and 6
2
100%
Level 2
100% 100%
4
100%
5
4
Household income quintiles
b. Distribution of students among math qualification levels
according to socio-economic status in Turkey
a. Average student performance and
socio-economic status in Turkey
11. 11
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Overview of Education Policies in Turkey
• Education expenditures increased both in absolute terms
and as a share of central government budget since 2003
• Most was spent on building schools and classrooms
• Still, education expenditure per student both in primary
and secondary level are lower than the OECD average.
• The share of private sources in education expenditures is
higher than most OECD countries.
• The high share of private sources in total education
expenditures is due to the dual institutional structure
– public schools vs. private schools and dershanes
– # of students attending private schools in total has increased from
231,000 in 2003 to 651 in 2014
12. 3. Survey of Literature
• Psacharopoulos, Arieira and Mattson (1997)
• Kanellopoulos and Psacharopoulos (1997); Psacharopoulos
and Papakonstantinou (2005)
• Hashimoto and Health (1995)
• Qian and Smyth (2011)
• Glewwe and Patrinos (1999); Glewwe and Jacoby (2004);
Huy (2012)
• Tansel (2002); Tansel and Bircan (2006); Smits and Hoşgör
(2006); Hisarcıklılar, McKay and Wright (2010)
12
Survey of LiteratureDeterminants of education expenditures in Turkey
13. 4. Data and Model
• 2003, 2007 and 2012 Turkish Household Budget Survey
• Model captures 3 types of variables
– household heads (age, educational, employment status)
– household characteristics (size, location)
– students in households (% of primary school, % of female)
• We estimate separate regressions for income quartiles.
• We use Tobit estimation analysis
13
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey Data and Model
14. Conceptual Framework
• Benson (1961) :the income elasticity of education is
– between zero and one for low- and high-income households,
– greater than one for middle income households.
• Educational background of the household head, (EDUC)
– below primary (base), primary, secondary, high school, university
• Multiple generations live in the same household, (HHS)
• Expenditures at different stages of education (SHRPS)
• Different attitudes in rural and urban areas (RURAL)
• Negative attitude towards girls’ (SHRFS), (RURALF)
• Control for the total # of students in the household (NS)
14
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey
Turkey
Data and Model
16. 5.Estimation Results
• lnINC is significant for all years and income quartiles
– a peak in the middle income quartiles and a decrease at both ends
of the income distribution
• For the 1st quartile, H0: ε=1 is rejected at the 5 % level of
significance in 2003 and 2007, not in 2012.
• For the 2nd quartile, ε >1 for all years.
• For the 3rd quartile, ε is not significantly different from 1 in
2003 and 2007, and statistically insignificant in 2012.
• For the 4th quartile, ε is not different from one in 2003 and
2007, while for 2012 it is statistically significantly >1
16
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey
Turkey
Estimation Results
17. • Income elasticity of education increases over time for all.
• Head’s education has an increasingly positive effect
– For the upper middle income and the top income quartiles, the
coefficients of EDUCD4 and EDUCD5 are always significant
– for the 2nd quartile in 2007, all households with a graduate head
spend more than households whose heads lack a diploma
– in all income quartiles in 2012, household heads with a high-school
degree invest more in education than those without any education
• HHS is highly significantly negative in all estimations.
• SHRPS is insignificant in almost all estimations.
• Households in the urban areas spend more on education
than those in the rural areas in 2003.
– In 2007, this finding weakens and holds only for lower-income
families; and in 2012, the coefficient of RURAL turns out to be
insignificant for all income quartiles
17
Determinants of education expenditures in Turkey
Turkey
Estimation Results
