Fundamental concepts, principle of economicsShompa Nandi
Fundamental Concept or Principle of Economics, Opportunity cost principle, Equi-marginal principle, incremental principle, discounting principle, Risk and uncertainty, Time Perspective
Fundamental concepts, principle of economicsShompa Nandi
Fundamental Concept or Principle of Economics, Opportunity cost principle, Equi-marginal principle, incremental principle, discounting principle, Risk and uncertainty, Time Perspective
This presentation about game theory particularly two players zero sum game for under graduate students in engineering program. It is part of operations research subject.
5.DECISION MAKING PROCESS :-
Recognizing & defining the situation
Identifying the alternatives
Evaluating the alternatives
Apply the model
Selecting the best alternatives
Conduct a sensitivity of the solution
Implementing the chosen alternatives
Following up & evaluating the result
6.TYPE OF DECISION MAKING ENVIRONMENT
Decision making under certainty
Decision making under uncertainty
Decision making under risk
23.DECISION TREE :
Instances describable by attribute-value pairs
e.g Humidity: High, Normal
Target function is discrete valued
e.g Play tennis; Yes, No
Disjunctive hypothesis may be required
e.g Outlook=Sunny Wind=Weak
Possibly noisy training data
Missing attribute values
Application Examples:
Medical diagnosis
Credit risk analysis
Object classification for robot manipulator (Tan 1993)
25.Bayesian analysis
26.Utility theory :
Step for determine the utility for money :
Develop a payoff table using monetary values
Identify the best and worst payoff value
For every other monetary value in the original payoff table
Convert the payoff table from monetary value to calculate utility value.
Apply the expected utility criterion to the utility table and select the decision alternative with the best expected utility.
This presentation is an attempt to introduce Game Theory in one session. It's suitable for undergraduates. In practice, it's best used as a taster since only a portion of the material can be covered in an hour - topics can be chosen according to the interests of the class.
The main reference source used was 'Games, Theory and Applications' by L.C.Thomas. Further notes available at: http://bit.ly/nW6ULD
Decision theory as the name would imply is concerned with the process of making decisions. The extension to statistical decision theory includes decision making in the presence of statistical knowledge which provides some information where there is uncertainty. The elements of decision theory are quite logical and even perhaps intuitive. The classical approach to decision theory facilitates the use of sample information in making inferences about the unknown quantities. Other relevant information includes that of the possible consequences which is quantified by loss and the prior information which arises from statistical investigation. The use of Bayesian analysis in statistical decision theory is natural. Their unification provides a foundational framework for building and solving decision problems. The basic ideas of decision theory and of decision theoretic methods lend themselves to a variety of applications and computational and analytic advances.
This presentation about game theory particularly two players zero sum game for under graduate students in engineering program. It is part of operations research subject.
5.DECISION MAKING PROCESS :-
Recognizing & defining the situation
Identifying the alternatives
Evaluating the alternatives
Apply the model
Selecting the best alternatives
Conduct a sensitivity of the solution
Implementing the chosen alternatives
Following up & evaluating the result
6.TYPE OF DECISION MAKING ENVIRONMENT
Decision making under certainty
Decision making under uncertainty
Decision making under risk
23.DECISION TREE :
Instances describable by attribute-value pairs
e.g Humidity: High, Normal
Target function is discrete valued
e.g Play tennis; Yes, No
Disjunctive hypothesis may be required
e.g Outlook=Sunny Wind=Weak
Possibly noisy training data
Missing attribute values
Application Examples:
Medical diagnosis
Credit risk analysis
Object classification for robot manipulator (Tan 1993)
25.Bayesian analysis
26.Utility theory :
Step for determine the utility for money :
Develop a payoff table using monetary values
Identify the best and worst payoff value
For every other monetary value in the original payoff table
Convert the payoff table from monetary value to calculate utility value.
Apply the expected utility criterion to the utility table and select the decision alternative with the best expected utility.
This presentation is an attempt to introduce Game Theory in one session. It's suitable for undergraduates. In practice, it's best used as a taster since only a portion of the material can be covered in an hour - topics can be chosen according to the interests of the class.
The main reference source used was 'Games, Theory and Applications' by L.C.Thomas. Further notes available at: http://bit.ly/nW6ULD
Decision theory as the name would imply is concerned with the process of making decisions. The extension to statistical decision theory includes decision making in the presence of statistical knowledge which provides some information where there is uncertainty. The elements of decision theory are quite logical and even perhaps intuitive. The classical approach to decision theory facilitates the use of sample information in making inferences about the unknown quantities. Other relevant information includes that of the possible consequences which is quantified by loss and the prior information which arises from statistical investigation. The use of Bayesian analysis in statistical decision theory is natural. Their unification provides a foundational framework for building and solving decision problems. The basic ideas of decision theory and of decision theoretic methods lend themselves to a variety of applications and computational and analytic advances.
This presentation contains the topic as follows, probability distribution, random variable, continuous variable, discrete variable, probability mass function, expected value and variance and examples
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
2. Decision Making Under Uncertainty
In this case the decision maker has the complete knowledge of the consequences of every alternative
or decision choice. Here the decision maker presumes that only one state of nature is relevant for this
purpose. He identifies this state of nature , takes it for granted and presumes complete knowledge as
to its occurrence.
4. Maximax
This is the OPTIMISTIC type of criterion
In this criterion the decision maker does not want to miss the opportunity to achieve the largest
possible profit.
Procedure
1) Locate the maximum payoff values corresponding to each act
2) From among the maximums choose the highest value
3) The act corresponding to the highest value will be the decision
5. Example
1) maximum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴1=120 i.e. maximum in 1st column
maximum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴2=80 i.e. maximum in 2nd column
maximum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴3=100 i.e. maximum in 3rd column
2) From among the maximums choose the highest value
maximum payoff values out of (120,80,100)=120
3) The act corresponding to the highest value 120 is 𝐴1 will be the decision
State of Nature Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 40 80 100
𝑆2 70 30 80
𝑆3 120 10 20
6. Maximin
This is the PESSIMISTIC type of criterion.
This is a conservative approach.
Here the decision maker attempts in maximizing the minimum possible profit
Procedure
1) Locate the minimum payoff values corresponding to each act
2) From among the minimum choose the maximum value
3) The act corresponding to the maximum value will be the decision
7. Example
1) minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴1=40 i.e. maximum in 1st column
minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴2=10 i.e. maximum in 2nd column
minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴3=20 i.e. maximum in 3rd column
2) From among the minimum choose the maximum value
maximum payoff values out of (40,10,20)=40
3) The act corresponding to the highest value 40 is 𝐴1 will be the decision
State of Nature Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 40 80 100
𝑆2 70 30 80
𝑆3 120 10 20
8. Minimin
This is the PESSIMISTIC type of criterion.
Procedure
1) Locate the minimum payoff values corresponding to each act
2) From among the minimum choose the minimum value
3) The act corresponding to the minimum value will be the decision
9. Example
1) minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴1=40 i.e. maximum in 1st column
minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴2=10 i.e. maximum in 2nd column
minimum payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴3=20 i.e. maximum in 3rd column
2) From among the minimum choose the minimum value
minimum payoff values out of (40,10,20)=10
3) The act corresponding to the minimum value 10 is 𝐴2 will be the decision
State of Nature Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 40 80 100
𝑆2 70 30 80
𝑆3 120 10 20
10. Laplace
In this criteria it is assumed that all states of nature will occur with equal probability.
Here the decision maker finds the average outcome for each act and picks up the act corresponding
to maximum value
Procedure
1) Find the average payoff values corresponding to each act
2) From among the averages choose the maximum value
3) The act corresponding to the maximum value will be the decision
11. Example
1) average payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴1 =
40+70+120
3
=
230
3
= 76.67 i.e. average in 1st column
average payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴2 =
80+30+10
3
=
120
3
= 40 i.e. average in 2nd column
average payoff values corresponding to act 𝐴3 =
100+80+20
3
=
200
3
= 66.67 i.e. average in 3rd column
2) From among the averages choose the maximum value
minimum payoff values out of (76.67,40,66.67)=76.67
3) The act corresponding to the maximum value 76.67 is 𝐴1 will be the decision
State of Nature Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 40 80 100
𝑆2 70 30 80
𝑆3 120 10 20
12. Minimax Regret
In this criteria the decision maker identifies the maximum regret for each act and selects the act for
which maximum regret is minimum.
Procedure
1) Convert conditional profit matrix into regret matrix i.e. opportunity loss table
2) Find the maximum values corresponding to each act
2) From among the averages choose the minimum value
3) The act corresponding to the minimum value will be the decision
13. Opportunity Loss Table
The Opportunity Loss is defined as the difference between the highest possible profit for a state of
nature and the actual profit obtained for the particular action taken.
Maximum pay of 𝑆1=Max{𝑃11, 𝑃12, 𝑃13, … 𝑃1𝑛} = Max{S1}
State
of
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 --- 𝐴 𝑛
𝑆1 𝑃11 𝑃12 𝑃13 𝑃1𝑛
𝑆2 𝑃21 𝑃22 𝑃23 𝑃2𝑛
𝑆3 𝑃31 𝑃32 𝑃33 𝑃3𝑛
----
𝑆 𝑚 𝑃 𝑚1 𝑃 𝑚2 𝑃 𝑚3 𝑃𝑚𝑛
Conditional Profit Matrix
State of
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 --- 𝐴 𝑛
𝑆1 Max S1 − 𝑃11 Max S1 − 𝑃12 Max S1 − 𝑃13 Max S1 − 𝑃1𝑛
𝑆2 Max S2 − 𝑃21 Max S2 − 𝑃22 Max S2 − 𝑃23 Max S2 − 𝑃2𝑛
𝑆3 Max S3 − 𝑃31 Max S3 − 𝑃32 Max S3 − 𝑃33 Max S3 − 𝑃3𝑛
-----
𝑆 𝑚 Max S 𝑚 − 𝑃 𝑚1 Max S 𝑚 − 𝑃 𝑚2 Max S 𝑚
− 𝑃 𝑚3
Max S 𝑚 − 𝑃𝑚𝑛
Opportunity Loss Table or Regret Table
14. Example
Maximum of 𝑆1=Max{𝑆1}=Max{40,80,100}=100
Maximum of 𝑆2=Max{𝑆2}=Max{70,30,80}=80
Maximum of 𝑆3=Max{𝑆3}=Max{120,10,20}=120
State
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 40 80 100
𝑆2 70 30 80
𝑆3 120 10 20
Conditional Payoff Matrix
State of
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 100-40 100-80 100-100
𝑆2 80-70 80-30 80-80
𝑆3 120-120 120-10 120-20
Opportunity Loss Table
State of
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 60 20 0
𝑆2 10 50 0
𝑆3 0 110 100
Opportunity Loss Table
15. Example
Step 2) Maximum of 𝐴1=Max{60,10,0}=60
Maximum of 𝐴2=Max{20,50,110}=110
Maximum of 𝐴3=Max{0,0,100}=100
Step 3) From among the averages choose the minimum value i.e. min{60,110,100}=60
Step 4) The act corresponding to the minimum value 60 will be the decision i.e. 𝐴1
State of
Nature
Acts
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑆1 60 20 0
𝑆2 10 50 0
𝑆3 0 110 100
Opportunity Loss Table