1. The document discusses quantitative decision making methods, including expected value, decision trees, and expected value of perfect and sample information. 2. It provides an example of a restaurant choosing between three models based on expected number of customers. It calculates expected values and shows the optimal choice is Model C. 3. It then calculates the expected value of perfect information as $2,000, the increase in profit if the true customer number was known for certain. Obtaining a marketing survey costs $1,000 but only provides an expected value of sample information of $900.88, so the survey should not be purchased.

1. 1Slide
QUANTITATIVE
METHODS FOR
BUSINESS
Lectured by B. Yuliarto Nugroho, PhD
© 2017 University of Indonesia

2. 2Slide
Decision Analysis, Part B
 Expected Value of Perfect Information
 Decision Analysis with Sample Information
 Developing a Decision Strategy
 Expected Value of Sample Information

3. 3Slide
Example: Burger Prince
Burger Prince Restaurant is contemplating
opening a new restaurant on Main Street. It has three
different models, each with a different seating
capacity. Burger Prince estimates that the average
number of customers per hour will be 80, 100, or 120.
The payoff table for the three models is as follows:
Average Number of Customers Per Hour
s1 = 80 s2 = 100 s3 = 120
Model A $10,000 $15,000 $14,000
Model B $ 8,000 $18,000 $12,000
Model C $ 6,000 $16,000 $21,000

4. 4Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Expected Value Approach
Calculate the expected value for each decision. The
decision tree on the next slide can assist in this
calculation. Here d1, d2, d3 represent the decision
alternatives of models A, B, C, and s1, s2, s3 represent the
states of nature of 80, 100, and 120.

5. 5Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Decision Tree
1
.2
.4
.4
.4
.2
.4
.4
.2
.4
d1
d2
d3
s1
s1
s1
s2
s3
s2
s2
s3
s3
Payoffs
10,000
15,000
14,000
8,000
18,000
12,000
6,000
16,000
21,000
2
3
4

6. 6Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Expected Value For Each Decision
Choose the model with largest EV, Model C.
3
d1
d2
d3
EMV = .4(10,000) + .2(15,000) + .4(14,000)
= $12,600
EMV = .4(8,000) + .2(18,000) + .4(12,000)
= $11,600
EMV = .4(6,000) + .2(16,000) + .4(21,000)
= $14,000
Model A
Model B
Model C
2
1
4

7. 7Slide
Expected Value of Perfect Information
 Frequently information is available which can
improve the probability estimates for the states of
nature.
 The expected value of perfect information (EVPI) is
the increase in the expected profit that would result if
one knew with certainty which state of nature would
occur.
 The EVPI provides an upper bound on the expected
value of any sample or survey information.

8. 8Slide
Expected Value of Perfect Information
 EVPI Calculation
• Step 1:
Determine the optimal return corresponding to
each state of nature.
• Step 2:
Compute the expected value of these optimal
returns.
• Step 3:
Subtract the EV of the optimal decision from the
amount determined in step (2).

9. 9Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Expected Value of Perfect Information
Calculate the expected value for the optimum
payoff for each state of nature and subtract the EV of
the optimal decision.
EVPI= .4(10,000) + .2(18,000) + .4(21,000) - 14,000 = $2,000

10. 10Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Spreadsheet for Expected Value of Perfect Information
A B C D E F
1
2
3 Decision Expected Recommended
4 Alternative s1 = 80 s2 = 100 s3 = 120 Value Decision
5 d1 = Model A 10,000 15,000 14,000 12600
6 d2 = Model B 8,000 18,000 12,000 11600
7 d3 = Model C 6,000 16,000 21,000 14000 d3 = Model C
8 Probability 0.4 0.2 0.4
9 14000
10
11 EVwPI EVPI
12 10,000 18,000 21,000 16000 2000
State of Nature
Maximum Expected Value
PAYOFF TABLE
Maximum Payoff

11. 11Slide
Risk Analysis
 Risk analysis helps the decision maker recognize the
difference between:
• the expected value of a decision alternative
and
• the payoff that might actually occur
 The risk profile for a decision alternative shows the
possible payoffs for the decision alternative along with
their associated probabilities.

12. 12Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Risk Profile for the Model C Decision Alternative
.10
.20
.30
.40
.50
5 10 15 20 25
Probability

13. 13Slide
Sensitivity Analysis
 Sensitivity analysis can be used to determine how
changes to the following inputs affect the
recommended decision alternative:
• probabilities for the states of nature
• values of the payoffs
 If a small change in the value of one of the inputs
causes a change in the recommended decision
alternative, extra effort and care should be taken in
estimating the input value.

14. 14Slide
Bayes’ Theorem and Posterior Probabilities
 Knowledge of sample or survey information can be
used to revise the probability estimates for the states of
nature.
 Prior to obtaining this information, the probability
estimates for the states of nature are called prior
probabilities.
 With knowledge of conditional probabilities for the
outcomes or indicators of the sample or survey
information, these prior probabilities can be revised by
employing Bayes' Theorem.
 The outcomes of this analysis are called posterior
probabilities or branch probabilities for decision trees.

15. 15Slide
Computing Branch Probabilities
 Branch (Posterior) Probabilities Calculation
• Step 1:
For each state of nature, multiply the prior
probability by its conditional probability for the
indicator -- this gives the joint probabilities for the
states and indicator.
• Step 2:
Sum these joint probabilities over all states -- this
gives the marginal probability for the indicator.
• Step 3:
For each state, divide its joint probability by the
marginal probability for the indicator -- this gives
the posterior probability distribution.

16. 16Slide
Expected Value of Sample Information
 The expected value of sample information (EVSI) is
the additional expected profit possible through
knowledge of the sample or survey information.

17. 17Slide
Expected Value of Sample Information
 EVSI Calculation
• Step 1:
Determine the optimal decision and its expected
return for the possible outcomes of the sample or
survey using the posterior probabilities for the states
of nature.
Step 2:
Compute the expected value of these optimal
returns.
• Step 3:
Subtract the EV of the optimal decision obtained
without using the sample information from the
amount determined in step (2).

18. 18Slide
Efficiency of Sample Information
 Efficiency of sample information is the ratio of EVSI to
EVPI.
 As the EVPI provides an upper bound for the EVSI,
efficiency is always a number between 0 and 1.

19. 19Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Sample Information
Burger Prince must decide whether or not to
purchase a marketing survey from Stanton Marketing
for $1,000. The results of the survey are "favorable" or
"unfavorable". The conditional probabilities are:
P(favorable | 80 customers per hour) = .2
P(favorable | 100 customers per hour) = .5
P(favorable | 120 customers per hour) = .9
Should Burger Prince have the survey performed
by Stanton Marketing?

20. 20Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Influence Diagram
Restaurant
Size
Profit
Avg. Number
of Customers
Per Hour
Market
Survey
Results
Legend:
Decision
Chance
Consequence
Market
Survey

21. 21Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Posterior Probabilities
Favorable
State Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
80 .4 .2 .08 .148
100 .2 .5 .10 .185
120 .4 .9 .36 .667
Total .54 1.000
P(favorable) = .54

22. 22Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Posterior Probabilities
Unfavorable
State Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
80 .4 .8 .32 .696
100 .2 .5 .10 .217
120 .4 .1 .04 .087
Total .46 1.000
P(unfavorable) = .46

23. 23Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Formula Spreadsheet for Posterior Probabilities
A B C D E
1
2 Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
3 State of Nature Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
4 s1 = 80 0.4 0.2 =B4*C4 =D4/$D$7
5 s2 = 100 0.2 0.5 =B5*C5 =D5/$D$7
6 s3 = 120 0.4 0.9 =B6*C6 =D6/$D$7
7 =SUM(D4:D6)
8
9
10 Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
11 State of Nature Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
12 s1 = 80 0.4 0.8 =B12*C12 =D12/$D$15
13 s2 = 100 0.2 0.5 =B13*C13 =D13/$D$15
14 s3 = 120 0.4 0.1 =B14*C14 =D14/$D$15
15 =SUM(D12:D14)
Market Research Favorable
P(Favorable) =
Market Research Unfavorable
P(Unfavorable) =

24. 24Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Solution Spreadsheet for Posterior Probabilities
A B C D E
1
2 Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
3 State of Nature Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
4 s1 = 80 0.4 0.2 0.08 0.148
5 s2 = 100 0.2 0.5 0.10 0.185
6 s3 = 120 0.4 0.9 0.36 0.667
7 0.54
8
9
10 Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
11 State of Nature Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
12 s1 = 80 0.4 0.8 0.32 0.696
13 s2 = 100 0.2 0.5 0.10 0.217
14 s3 = 120 0.4 0.1 0.04 0.087
15 0.46
Market Research Favorable
P(Favorable) =
Market Research Unfavorable
P(Favorable) =

25. 25Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Decision Tree (top half)
s1 (.148)
s1 (.148)
s1 (.148)
s2 (.185)
s2 (.185)
s2 (.185)
s3 (.667)
s3 (.667)
s3 (.667)
$10,000
$15,000
$14,000
$8,000
$18,000
$12,000
$6,000
$16,000
$21,000
I1
(.54)
d1
d2
d3
2
4
5
6
1

26. 26Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Decision Tree (bottom half)
s1 (.696)
s1 (.696)
s1 (.696)
s2 (.217)
s2 (.217)
s2 (.217)
s3 (.087)
s3 (.087)
s3 (.087)
$10,000
$15,000
$18,000
$14,000
$8,000
$12,000
$6,000
$16,000
$21,000
I2
(.46)
d1
d2
d3
7
9
83
1

27. 27Slide
Example: Burger Prince
I2
(.46)
d1
d2
d3
EMV = .696(10,000) + .217(15,000)
+.087(14,000)= $11,433
EMV = .696(8,000) + .217(18,000)
+ .087(12,000) = $10,554
EMV = .696(6,000) + .217(16,000)
+.087(21,000) = $9,475
I1
(.54)
d1
d2
d3
EMV = .148(10,000) + .185(15,000)
+ .667(14,000) = $13,593
EMV = .148 (8,000) + .185(18,000)
+ .667(12,000) = $12,518
EMV = .148(6,000) + .185(16,000)
+.667(21,000) = $17,855
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
3
1
$17,855
$11,433

28. 28Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Expected Value of Sample Information
If the outcome of the survey is "favorable" choose
Model C. If it is unfavorable, choose model A.
EVSI = .54($17,855) + .46($11,433) - $14,000 = $900.88
Since this is less than the cost of the survey, the
survey should not be purchased.

29. 29Slide
Example: Burger Prince
 Efficiency of Sample Information
The efficiency of the survey:
EVSI/EVPI = ($900.88)/($2000) = .4504

30. 30Slide
The End of Part B
Thank you