talk about the background of culture, co culture, the characteristics of culture, the differences eastern culture and western culture, assimilation of culture and the development of culture.
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Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak in and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also the thing that we have inherited as members of society. All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various
issues of life.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2. A.The Nature of Culture
1. Culture
Culture may be defined as the totality of the mental and physical
reactions and activities that characterize the behavior of individuals
composing a social group collectively and individually in relations to
their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group
itself and of each individual to himself (Boast, 1928)
3. 2. Co-Culture
It refers to a sub-culture within a particular culture that is different
from predominant culture.
The example is O’odham culture is the co-culture of the American
culture as the predominant culture.
4. 3. Characteristics of Culture
George Peter Murdock argued that there are seven cultural patterns of
behavior as outlined below:
a. They originate in human mind
b. They facilitate human environmental interaction
c. They satisfy basic human needs
d. They are cumulative and adjust to change in external and internal
condition
e. They tend to form a consistent structure
f. They are learned and shared by all the member of the society
g. They are transmitted to new generation
5. The Explicit and Implicit Culture
• The explicit culture consists directly of observable regulations in
verbal and non verbal behavior on the members of a society. It
consists of the typical behavior of people.The standard behavior
event is the pattern of behavior of typical individuals in a situation
standard in a culture. All the standard behavior events comprise the
explicit culture of a society.
• Implicit culture can be defined as the modal cognition, wants,
interpersonal response traints and attitudes in a society.We can
discuss the implicit culture of a society in terms of cultural beliefs,
cultural norms, and cultural premises.
6. Cultural Belief
• The belief system of a society includes all the cognition ideas,
knowledge, lore, superstitions, myths and legends, shared by most
members of the society and by the typical occupants of various positions
in the society
• A value is an especially important class of beliefs shared by the members
of a society or by the typical occupants of various positions in the
society, concerning what is “good” or what “ought to be”.
• Behavior in standard behavior events is also regulated by cultural norms.
Norms are divided into folkways and mores. Norms are called folkways
when conformity to them is not considered vital to the welfare of the
group
7. • Mores are norms which specify behavior of vital importance to the
society and which embody its basic moral values.The prohibition
against big army is one of the mores in American culture.
• The basic elements of culture-the standard behavior events and their
associated regulatory patterns are frequently organized into larger
patterns which are well established and accepted as fundamental
part of culture.
8. TheWestern Culture
Specific characteristics of western culture
1. In terms of expressing opinion western people tend to be direct.
2. Western people tend to be individualistic
3. In term of contexts are more systematic in accordance with the
purpose and nature of the context.
4. Westerners have bigger ego than easterners
5. Face the problem directly
6. Westerner thinks that bosses are just little different in terms of
responsibilities
9. Assimilation of theWestern into the Eastern Culture
• By assimilation of culture is meant that two or more culture merge into
one specific culture without showing any of the characteristics of the
two cultures.This happens when we learn a western language either as
foreign or second language.
• This kind of assimilation include lexicogrammatical use of language.
• An utterance, however, is made on the basis of context of culture and of
situation.
• The context of culture will generate the genre of a text.
• Genre is then to show the communicative purposes, generic structure
and linguistics features all of which differ from one culture to another
10. • The context of situation presents a significant flavor with respect to
the use of register depending on the discourse. A political discourse
has a different register from educational register.
• The goal of learning language is to achieve discourse competence as
illustrated bellow
