This document provides guidance on dairy herd and cattle management practices at different stages of an animal's life. It discusses recommendations for calf, heifer, and cow nutrition as well as health practices from birth through lactation and pregnancy. Record keeping is important for herd management. Housing, feeding, breeding, and health programs need to minimize stress and risks of disease while maximizing productivity and animal welfare. Proper management varies by climate and breed but generally aims to support health, growth, and milk production through the dairy cattle lifecycle.

1. ADVANCE
DAIRY PRODUCTION
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY
COWS
ANGELA LABRADOR

2. Herd management practices in cow handling, nutrition, milking procedures, sanitation and housing play major roles in
predisposing the individual animal as well as herds to diseases.
Dairy farm management should be sophisticated, particularly in the tropics with the added environmental stresses.
However, smallholder and small dairy cooperatives often lack the necessary management skills. Dairy farming itself
requires basic education and training. Time is required for dairy farmers as well as the veterinarian assistants and
veterinary practitioners to gain experience.
An important aid for farm management is the keeping of records of all animals and events relating to animals
throughout their lives. The main purpose of the records is for dairy herd management, breeding and progeny testing.
Records of insemination, birth date, sire, dam, calving date, vaccination date, health problems, treatment, milk yield
and feeding can help farmers to predict future or preventive needs for health care.
The dairy herd improvement program is a beneficial tool for farm management but the procedures tend to be costly and
need a lot of technicians to access smallholders in the tropics.
General dairy herd management and health programs in the tropics are similar to those of herds in other warm climates
and to lesser extent, cool climates. However, tropical climates add stresses which compound health problems and
increase the incidence of disease.
The minimization of stress can be accomplished through good housing and care, and thereby reduce the risk of disease.
Likewise limiting the percentage of Bos taurus blood in crossbreeds of smallholders reduce the need for sophisticated
management and facilities.

3. A well established and managed dairy cattle farming enterprise can be a highly profitable undertaking. When starting a
dairy farm, consider the following issues:
1. ANIMAL BREEDS
- The common breeds found in African dairy farms are the exotic Ayshire, Holstein/Fresian, Jersey, Guernsey, indigenous
Zebu, Boran, Ankole, Fulani and crosses between exotic and indigenous breeds.
• The pure exotic breeds are high milk producers (e.g. Fresian can give 4300 kg per lactation, so many farmers might
keep these ones, however, the pure exotic breeds have some disadvantages, e.g.)
- Exotic breeds usually consume a lot, thus can be expensive to maintain.
- Exotic breeds have low tolerance to tropical diseases.
• Indigenous breeds are low milk producers, (e.g. Zebu can give 880 kg per lactation thus income from milk sales is less
than from exotic breeds. However, indigenous breeds have some advantages, e.g.0
- They are low feed consumers, thus will cost less to maintain.
- Indigenous breeds are better adapted to local environments and have higher tolerance to tropical bovine diseases.
• The crossbreeds, which combine the best traits from both exotic and indigenous breeds perform well in the tropics.
They can give 1800 kg per lactation.
2. FEEDS
- Before embarking on a dairy farming enterprises it is important to find out the type of feeds available affordably in the
area. Types of feeds can be divided into:
• Forages – these includes Napier grass, hay, grass, maize (stover and residues) plants, and banana pseudo stems. Fodder
legumes like Leucaene, calliandra, ssbania, and gliricidia. Different types of forages have different nutritional value to
the animal. It is therefore necessary to mix or change between forages over time. Forages can be easily grown in your
farm or purchased. Although forages are relatively cheaper to buy than other types of feeds, a commercial dairy
enterprise should endeavor to produce at least a proportion of the required forages.

4. • Concentrates – these includes wheat bran, maize germ, dairy meal and pollard or maize bran. These types of feeds
cannot be produced on small or medium scale farms, as they require large capital investments. However, in almost all
areas where dairy farming is suitable there are industries that specialize in producing and selling these types of feeds.
Concentrates are usually used in small quantities, unlike forages.
• Other by products – e.g. cotton seed cake, fish meal, molasses. These are usually by products of other industrial or
farm enterprises, which are rich in nutrients that increase productivity of dairy animals. Their availability depends on
distance between the dairy farm and the industry producing the by product.
• Feed additives - e.g. minerals and vitamins, livestock salts, enzymes, buffers, probiotics yeast and urea. These also
have to be purchased and are essential component of costs in a dairy enterprises.
3. FEEDING – Productivity of dairy animals is to a large extent dependent on how well it is fed. Dairy animals are
highly sensitive to changes in feeding regimes, and production can fall dramatically with small variations on a day to
day basis. A good farmer should set a good feeding schedule and as much as possible adhere to it. Feeding can be
affected by cyclical weather effects on availability and quality of forages and even quality of concentrates or additives
varying with manufacturer.
•Dairy Cow Nutrition
-Nutrient requirements vary with the stage of lactation and gestation.
-The early lactation phase is the period from 0 to 70 days after calving. Milk production increases rapidly during this
period, peaking at 6 to 8 weeks after calving. Increasing concentrates by about 0.5 kg per day after calving will increase
nutrient intake while minimizing off-feed problems, e.g. lack of appetite and acidosis (rumen acids increase which stops
normal function and digestion). Feed intake can be increased and rumination stimulated by chopping the forage to small
pieces. Chopped forages are better consumed so that cows increase milk production, and also reduces forage wastage.
-Peak period is between 70 to 140 days after calving. Cows should be maintained at peak production as long as possible.
Forage quality be high with intakes of atleast 1.5% of the cow’s body weight (DM basis) per day to maintain rumen
function and normal fat test.

5. -Mid – and late lactation is 140 to 305 days after calving. This phase will be the easiest to manage in a dairy animals cycle.
During this phase milk production is declining, the cow is incalf (pregnant), and nutrient intake will easily meet or exceed
requirements. Concentrate feeding should be at a level to meet the milk production requirements and begin to replace body
weight lost during early lactation.
-Dry period (when milk production stops) commences and ends 6 to 14 days after calving. A most important requirement in
this period is to meet calcium and phosphorus needs, but avoiding excesses. Calcium intakes of 60 to 80 grams and
phosphorus intakes of 30 to 40 grams are sufficient for most cows. Dry cow feeding should not have above 0.6% calcium and
0.4% phosphorus (DM basis), as this can substantially increase milk fever problems.Adequate amounts of vitamin A, D and
E should be provided in rations to improve calf survival, reduce placenta retention and milk fever problems.
-Trace minerals, including selenium should be adequately supplemented in dry cow diets from livestock salts and feed
additives.The transition or close-up period is 14 days before calving.
•Calf Nutrition
-Calves should be fed on colostrum (first milk from a cow that has calved down) as soon after birth as possible (within 30
minutes and certainly within 4 hours) so as to protect the new calf against diseases.
-Commercial colostrum supplements can also be given when colostrum is not available. These supplements contains bovine
immunoglobulin and are prepared from cheese whey or colostrum from immunized cows. Milk or milk replacer should be
fed by open pail method and calves are fed twice daily.
-Weaning of calves from milk should be between 4 and 8 weeks after birth. Abrupt weaning is good as it usually stimulates
dry fed consumption.
•Problems likely to be encountered
-Calf scours - is diarrhea usually associated with incorrect milk feeding. However, scours can also develop as a result of
several conditions. To minimize scours the following should be avoided;
- Overcrowding – Provide about 20 – 24 square feet of building floor space for calves raised in confined, elevated stalls.

6. -Inadequate ventilation – Provide fresh air circulation in the calf pen but avoid direct drafts on the calf.
-Wet, damp calves – Provide adequate bedding and good ventilation, and avoid spraying calves with water when cleaning
the pen to prevent calves becoming chilled.
-Over feeding – Irregular amounts and too much of the wrong concentration or wrong kind of liquid diets are common
causes of calf scours.
-No first- milk colostrum – Don’t assume the newborn calf has nursed. Many newborn calves don’t receive enough
colostrum to be protected from calfhood diseases. Feed colostrum, preferably by hand, as soon as possible after birth.
-Dirty utensils – Clean the feeding utensils thoroughly after each feeding. Store upside down to drain all water out. Small
amounts of excess wash water that remains in utensils are perfect areas for bacteria to multiply rapidly.
•Heifer Nutrition
-In a dairy farm enterprise the greater interest is in the female calves, but male calves are also born. The farmer can decide to
sell off the male calves while they are young or raise them and sell when bigger. However, keeping and maintaining them
will cost money for feeds, drugs, labor and they will take space. For the retained female calves they have to be reared into
heifers. The following feeding program should be followed:
1. Rearing the calf from 12 weeks to 1 year. During this period in life, all available type of forage and limited concentrates
can be fed. Calves must have access to clean, fresh water. During this stage avoid over feeding concentrates and allowing
calves to become fat. Over- conditioned heifers produce less milk in later than those reared on a more moderate level of
nutrition. The key period in mammary gland development is between 3 and 9 months of age. During this period,
mammary tissue is growing 3.5 times faster than body tissue.
2. Feeding program for heifers 1 to 2 years of age ( to 2 months before calving). If good quality forage is available, this
may be the only feed required for heifers over 1 year of age. Trace mineral salt and a calcium-phosphorus supplement are
recommended on a free-choice basis. Heifers deficient in energy, phosphorus, or vitamin A will not exhibit estrus (heat).
First estrus in heifers depends on a combination of size and weight. A general guideline is heifers will show their first
estrus at 40% of their mature weight, which should be before 12 months of age.

7. *Practical health care
Health care of dairy cattle can be best described by age and state of the animal as set out in the following :
1. Newborn calf: First three days
- The newborn calf needs to be cleaned with a dry towel or clean and dry hay. This will stimulate respiration and
blood circulation.
- Remove slime from the nose and mouth to assist breathing and holding up the rear legs of the calf, let the head hang
down to release any water in the lungs, mouth or nose.
- If the navel is too long, cut it and leave two (2) to three (30 inches from the stalk then dip the navel in the tincture of
iodine to prevent local infection. This procedure is important for prevention of navel-ill (omphalitis) and helps the
umbilicus heal quickly.
- Feed the calf with colostrum within one (1) or two (2) hours after birth. The optimum time for absorption of
antibodies through calf’s small intestine is the first six (6) to eight (8) hours. Colostrum should provide the calf
with 10 to 15 % of its body weight. It is essential that the calf receives enough colostrum is high in nutritive value;
it contains antibodies IgG and IgM from the cow’s immune system which form passive resistance to many
infections.
- In general, removal of the calf from the dam should occur after calving to the isolate pen which should be dry and
clean. Straw for bedding must be clean and dry and should be changed regularly.
2. Calves from three days to one month
- Feeding with whole milk is expensive so milk replacer is used for routine feeding, which is twice a day. Bucket
feeding is commonly used; it should be cleaned well between uses to avoid digestive disorders due to poor hygiene.
- Train the calf to take concentrate and roughage at about one week of age. Solid food stimulates rumen
development. In the pen, clean water must be available at all times.
- Calves are numbered using ear-tag or tattoo. Removal of extra- teats could be done in the first weeks.
- Common health problems during this period are ompalitis, diarrhea, respiratory infection and arthritis.

8. 3. One month of age to weaning (3-4 months)
-Calves should be dehorned at one or two months of age.
-All female calves should be vaccinated against brucellosis (S19) at three to eight months of age.
-Weaning should take place at about three to four months of age or when the calf is able to eat roughage and concentrate of
more than 1 kilogram per day or at calf body weight between 80 to 90 kg (depending on the breed).
-De-worm the calf against internal parasites such as roundworms, tapeworm and flukes. Also, eliminate external parasites
such as ticks by spraying.
-In this period problems to be aware of, are parasites, bloat and arthritis.
4. Calves 4 – 12 months of age.
-Vaccinate against FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia and/or anthrax every six months.
-De-worm against internal parasites such as roundworm, tapeworm, flukes and also eliminate external parasites such as ticks
by spraying.
-In this period problems to be aware of include parasites, tick fever, pneumonia, diarrhea, bloat and arthritis.
5. Heifers 12-18 months of age
-Record the growth rate for which should not be less than 270 kg in crossbred of 300 kg in pure-bred cattle at first service.
-Take blood for brucellosis and do tuberculosis test.
-Vaccinate against FMD and hemorrhagic septicemia every six months.

9. -De-worming should be carried out every six months.
-Heat detection should be carried out to determine the right time for artificial insemination and use of selected semen in
accordance with the breeding plan of the region or farms.
-Heifers requiring repeated insemination (more then three times) need to be checked by a veterinarian.
-Heifers over 18 months old and/or weighing 270 kg which have not shown signs of estrus need to be checked by a
veterinarian.
-Pregnancy diagnosis should be done on each animal at 45 to 60 days after the last insemination.
-Common health problems that occur during this age,. Three-day sickness (ephemeral fever), tick fever, and other infectious
diseases and parasites.
6. pregnant heifers – pre-partum (24 – 36 months)
-Feed with good quality roughage and give concentrate as a supplement to pregnant heifers in poor condition.
-Mineral supplement can be used for pregnant heifers to prevent metabolic diseases such as milk fever.
-Vaccinate against FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia and other diseases as a vaccination program in the dairy region.
-De-worming for external and internal parasites should be carried out routinely. Signs that the cow is approaching parturition
are that it becomes uneasy and separates from the herd. Signs of calving include enlargement of the udder and belly, and
discharge from the vulva.
-In this period, one must be alert for heifers mastitis (mastitis before calving) and abortion.
7. At parturition
-The owner needs to prepare the calving area which should be clean, dry, quite and isolated to keep the pre-partum cow close
for the owner to notice and provide help if the cow shows signs of difficulty during the birth.
-Signs of calving include enlargement of the vulva, distention of the teats and udder, loss of ligaments at the side of the tail-
head, and restlessness. Other indicators are a marked increase in the amount of mucous, cervical seal liquefication and
increasing frequency of abdominal and uterine contractions.

10. -If delivery is determined to take longer than 24 hours and the allantoic sac has not protruded, the cow will require assistance
from a veterinarian.
-If there has been no expulsion of the fetus or any contractions for more than two hours after the rapture of the allantoic sac,
veterinary assistance will be required.
-During this period, there is the possibility of the milk fever, uterine prolapse, or downer cow occurring.
8. After calving: 7 days post-partum
-Natural expulsion of the fetal membrane should occur three to eight hours after calving or within 12 hours. If fetal
membrane is retained over 12 hours, the cow will require assistance from a veterinarian.
-Milk colostrum and feed to calf as soon as possible (within 6 hours).
-Remove the fetal membrane from the calving area or pen floor, clean the pen and the rearing area of the dam to reduce risk
of infection by flies.
-Deed the cow with good quality of food which is palatable because in this period cow has less appetite and may remain
stressed from delivery.
-During this period, there is possibility of retained placenta, metritis, milk fever, uterine prolapse and mastitis.
9. Milking
-Be aware of weight loss after parturition which is a sign of insufficient energy in the diet.
-Try to group cows for feeding and management according to their milk production.
-One month after parturition check the reproductive tract for uterine involution, metritis and ovarian functions.

11. -The cow should show signs of estrus within 60 days post-partum; cows requiring more than 3 inseminations need to be
checked by a veterinarian.
-During this period, there are risks from mastitis, metritis, abomassal displacement, acidosis and ketosis.
10. Dry period
-Check for pregnancy diagnosis once before allowing the cow to dry off.
-Drying-off should allow at least 2 months before the coming parturition to let the cow rest and prepare to calve.
Prevention of mastitis during the dry period and after calving is important.
-Maintaining the routine vaccination program.
-Treat for internal and external parasites.
-Hoof trimming can be done during this period.
-Maintaining good feed management during the dry period. Dairy health care management can be followed as a cycle.
11. Replacement heifers
-firstly, the health record of the purchased animals needs to be correct. In formations on vaccinations and health
problems as well as breeding certificates and individual cards from former owners are valuable. Quarantine may be
necessary before new animals can enter a farm. Shipping animals creates stress, so cattle should be handled as gently as
possible when loading and unloading. Shipment should be done in the shortest possible period of time and during the
coolest part of the day. If there is any doubt about the health of the cattle their temperature should be taken before
loading. It is more economical to treat feverish animals and delay shipment than to risk stress-induced illness or death.

12. 12. Culling
-Smallholders like to retain all cows, even those with low milk production or which never conceive. Good herd management
requires the culling of unproductive animals from the herd and replacement with improved stock. Unwillingness of some
smallholders to cull according to good practice may be related to sentiment and distraction by other agricultural enterprises
which limits attention to the production levels of individual cows. Serious dairy farmers will follow the practice of culling.
-Male calves are not economical to keep and farmers will sell them cheaply or cull them from stock as soon as possible.
Farmers prefer to keep only female calves as future replacement cows. Beef farming using dairy male calves is limited
compared to raising local multipurpose cattle.
13. Grooming
-Grooming cows daily, removing manure or litter from their bodies, not only improves the appearance of their coats but also
makes possible the production of cleaner milk. Washing and carding the tails occasionally adds much to the appearance of the
herd.
14. Bedding
-Bedding is used: To provide a comfortable bed; To keep the cow clean and To absorb the liquid manure
- The common bedding materials are wheat straw, oat straw, corn stover, shavings and sawdust. The desirable qualities of a
bedding material are bulkiness, large liquid holding capacity, high fertilizing value and freedom from dust.
15. Painting and Whitewashing the stable
- If the inside of the cow stable is to be painted, the woodwork or plastering should be smooth to avoid using excessive
quantities of paint. A rough surface is preferable for whitewashing because the whitewash will adhere to it better than to a
smooth surface. As compounds of lead are poisonous to cattle it is better to use paints that do not contain lead around the
stalls and pens where it may be licked or gnawed off. Cattle must be kept away from the paint until it is dry and all
materials and utensils used in painting must be removed from the cowyards and stables.

13. -Cow stables are usually whitewashed once or twice a year. Many whitewash formulas call for adding other substances
such as salt or skim milk to the lime and water. Just how much advantage there is in adding such materials is a matter of
conjecture.
-The commercially hydrate of lime makes a good whitewash when mixed with water; quick lime, ordinarily called lump
lime, may be slaked with a minimum quantity of water and used instead.
-Whitewash may be applied with a brush or with a spray pump. It can be applied more heavily with a brush, and sometimes
one coat so applied will give as good results as two with a sprayer. Whatever method of application is used, time in
cleaning will be saved if the stable equipment is covered with old bags or similar material. If the floor is kept wet while
whitewashing is in progress, the whitewash that is dropped can readily be dislodged with water and a brush or broom.
• CARING FOR A DAIRY COW
• It is generally considered that a cow should be dry for a time before calving, for four (4) principal reasons:
1. To rest the organs of milk secretion
2. To permit the nutrients in the feed to be used in developing the fetus instead of in producing milk
3. To enable the cow to replenish in her body the stores of minerals which may have become depleted through milk
production
4. To permit her to built up a reserve of body flesh before calving.
• LENGTH OF DRY PERIOD
- The length of the dry period required depends on the quantity of milk the cow has been producing and on her condition
or fleshiness. The greater her production has been the more likely that her body has been depleted of the nutrients used in
milk secretion and the longer the dry period required to replenish the losses and to store adequate reserves for the next
lactation.
- Cows should always be in at least a medium state of flesh at time of calving.
- The cost of keeping a cow in a dry condition for a very long period will more than offset the value of the increase in
yield. For cows that are well fed and are in good condition at time of drying off, it is suggested that the dry period should
be 30 to 60 days, the shorter period being for low producers. Thin cows should be dry for longer periods.

14. * CONDITIONS OF THE COW AT CALVING TIME
- Cows normally lose weight for 3 t 6 weeks after calving, because they cannot consume enough feed to provide adequately
for both the milk flow and the maintenance of body weight.
- Cows in good condition at calving time will start the lactation period at a higher level of production than will thin cows;
these results in a larger yield of milk for the year.
- Cows need a reserve of body tissues on which to draw until they recover from the effects of calving. The value of the
additional milk yielded by cows in good condition will more than offset the cost of the feed required to put them in good
condition.
- The feed during the dry period should contain plenty of protein and minerals, especially calcium (lime) and phosphorus.
Legumes , either as pasture hay or hay, furnish protein and lime; wheat bran, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, and soybean
meal are good sources of both phosphorus and protein. Green grass or other green forage promotes the assimilation of
calcium.
* METHOD AND ORDER OF FEEDING
- The quantity of grain to be fed to each cow should be carefully determined. A number of methods for feeding the grain are
in use, but the most practical is to place a general herd mixture in a truck or cart that is pushed through the feeding alley
and to weigh or measure the quantity for each animal.
- A feeding card or sheet showing the quantity of feed each cow is to get should be used.
- Silage can be fed from the same or similar cart. If an occasional scoopful of silage is weighed as a check, the quantity
which is being fed can be measured with a fair degree of accuracy by counting the scoopfuls.
- If loose hay is fed, the hay chutes should be placed conveniently so that the feeding requires as little work as possible.
Occasional weights of hay should be taken in order to feed cows economically and efficiently.
- Feed cows regularly, because they are probably more sensitive to change in the feeding routine than to a variation in the
hours of milking. Grain is usually fed before milking and the roughage afterward. This practice tends to avoid dust in the
stable air during milking. Silage and other feeds that might taint the milk should be fed after milking. Feed about half the
grain and roughage in the morning and half in the evening.

15. * WATERING - A plentiful supply of fresh, clean water is essential on the dairy farm. The cow’s demand for water depends
mainly upon the air temperature, the quantity of milk produced and the amount of succulent feed in the ration. The quantity
of water drunk in cold weather is about the same as that drunk in moderate weather but much smaller than that drunk in hot
weather.
•DISPOSING OF MANURE - The advice generally given for handling manure on the dairy farm is to spread the manure on
the land as son as possible after it is made. Probably it is also in advisable to haul manure onto the fields when the ground is
so soft that the wagon makes deep ruts. When farm work is pressing, manure hauling to the fields must be delayed. Storage
of manure cannot well be entirely avoided, therefore and a suitable storage placed should be provided in order to prevent
excessive loss of fertilizing ingredient. In storing manure, plenty of moisture and thorough packing are the main things to
consider. Where bedding is cheap, enough can be used to absorb the liquid manure; where it is costly the liquid can be
drained into a cistern or stored with the solid manure in a water tight pit.
•DAIRY CATTLE DISEASES
-Dairy cows are vulnerable to infection and various types of disorders. Therefore every farmer must continuously monitor
animals to detect and address any problems early. Although many problems can be avoided be careful management or dealt
with on the farm, every dairy farmer should always know a veterinary doctor who can quickly called to attend to the more
serious problems. Tuberculosis needs to be tested for individual dairy cattle. The tuberculin test on the caudal fold is a
practical method used world-wide. The brucellosis test, by individual serum, is also carried out in endemic areas. Control of
internal parasites should be conducted every 6 months, or during the drying-off period in the cow. Control of tick borne
disease is by routine controlling of the vectors or external parasites, dipping or spraying by acaricide to eliminate the ticks on
the cattle’s boy at 3 week interval.
•SOME DETAILS IN DAIRY CATTLE MANAGEMENT
I. Understanding Behavior Patterns
- The behavior of dairy cattle is determined by: (1) Inheritance; (2) Complex reactions and interactions of their nervous and
endocrine systems; (3) Past experiences (4) Previous training. An understanding of principles which govern animal
behavior is an essential factor in successful management of large group of dairy cows.

16. 1. Individual temperament
- Cows exhibit wide difference in temperament. Some are always calm and gentle, even phlegmatic. Others are
normally quite active, alert, somewhat nervous, and very excitable under stress. Between these two extremes are
animals that are usually quite but tend to react strongly to changes in their normal routine.
- Temperament has a heritability of approximately 0.50 therefore selection for this trait would be effective. However,
there is no correlation between temperament and milk yield.
2. Group interactions
- A definite social order exists in groups of dairy cattle of all ages. Dominance and submissiveness are of economic
and practical importance in dairy cattle since feed intake is affected, especially in loose housing systems. If cattle are
not dehorned, fighting may result in injuries. In submissive cows, harassment by dominant individuals may decrease
milk production over and above those decreases caused by reduced feed intake.
- Fighting takes place whenever animals are transferred from one to another herd until the social order is established.
3. Common vices
- While most cows exhibit normal behavior patterns and respond to kindness and superior herd management, in every
herd, from time to time there are a few animals that develop vices which interfere with regular herd routine.
- Aggressiveness. Occasionally, a dairy cow or heifer will become overly aggressive and attack attendants or visitors.
This is particular true with give proper care to the right group of animals, on the other hand, it is too time consuming
and requires more labor.

17. II. HANDLING THE HERD
1. Regularity of care
- The dairy cow is a creature of habit. The same routine of feeding, milking, caring for her should be used each day.
Changes in ration, amount of exercise, milker, milking time, etc., can have an effect on cows, especially the more
sensitive ones.
2. Kindness in Handling
- A cow must always be treated with kindness if she is to maintain production. The beating of a cow should never be
tolerated under any circumstances. When handled gently , they will move in and out of the barn or parlors slowly
without any danger or injury. The presence of dogs at milking time would disturb cows to the extent that milk let
down is inhibited.
3. Exercise
- Dairy cows need only a limited amount of exercise. The movement of cows in a loose-housing arrangement may
suffice. However, it seems desirable to give the cows at least some exercise, preferably on a sodded area.
4. Keeping cows and barn clean
- One of the greatest aids in keeping cows clean is to clip the belly, udder, and rear portion of the animal, including
the entire area back of a line drawn from in front of the udder to the tail head. Showering will not only makes cows
clean but also help dissipating heat, especially during hot days.
- Paved area in the barn should be clean daily while ample bedding and frequent picking up of droppings in the
bedded area are helpful in keeping cows clean .

18. -Palatable feed and cleanliness of feed mangers are important obtaining sufficient nutrient intake for satisfactory
production. Refusals should be removed and feeding troughs cleaned daily.
5. Care of the feet
-Regular inspection of the feet of all dairy animals, especially the older and larger cows, will reduce the incidence of
foot rot; lameness and other foot troubles. The feet of cows housed in stanchions tend to grow long toes and build up
excessive tissue on the soles of the feet.
-As a result, more weight is carried by the heels and hocks and pasterns are subjected to extra stress. If these conditions
are not corrected promptly by proper hoof trimming, permanent damage may result in the form of crooked legs and
weak pasterns which will shorten productive life. Cows with normal feet or after proper trimming carry their weight
evenly distributed over the entire foot.
6. Responsibilities of the herdsman
-The herdsman is responsible for implementing the policies and programs established by the owner and for organizing
the day-to-day operations relating to the milking cows and young stock. He must be constantly alert to detect the
earliest symptoms of a disease so that the animal can be isolated immediately and treated promptly.
III. MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN HOT ENVIRONMENT
-Maintaining normal milk production in the humid tropics is a big challenge to dairy farmers. This is due to the fact
that the ideal environment for dairy cows would have temperature between 0.17 degree Celsius and low humidity. In as
much as farm resources permit, the following practices should be observed in order to help milking cows beat the heat
and produce milk efficiently.
1. Maintaining normal body temperature
- As the air temperature increases above 17 degree Celsius, there is relatively little effect upon milk production until
the critical temperature for each individual cow is reached. This is the air temperature at which the avenues of heat
dissipation can no longer prevent an increase in the cow’s body temperature.

19. Critical temperature for milking cows fed free-choice have been reported as follows:
•Holstein - 27degree Celsius
•Brown Swiss - 28 degree Celsius
•Jersey – 30 degree Celsius
•Brahman – 35 degree Celsius
-Management program should provide:
•Water
•Shade
•Air movement , in the barn and other economical and practical methods for keeping the cows cool and comfortable.
Water – milking cows need tremendous amounts of water daily for every liter of milk produced, 4 – 5 liters of water
should be given. If dry feed is fed, more water will be consumed than if the animal were fed with fresh grass. Likewise,
cows would consume more water during hot days. Cows would drink the same amount of water whether it is available
at all times or only twice a day, however they would produce less milk (3.5 %) in the latter instance.
Shade – dairy cattle absorb heat by radiation from exposure to direct or reflected sunlight and from thermal radiation
from the atmosphere and the ground. The amount of heat which is absorbed depends upon many factors including: (1)
the surface area of the animal; (2) the color of the hair coat (dark colors absorb and light color reflect more heat); and
(3) the ambient temperature. It is the principal method of reducing heat absorption by radiation. For hot and humid
climates, shade 2-3 meters in height with north-south orientation is recommended. Painting galvanized steel with white
paint or wetting the roof surface aids in lowering the temperature. Trees will generally provide acceptable shade. Other
methods. Cows could be cooled by showering or sprinkling during hot days. Increase heat loss by convection through
improved ventilation is another effective way. This can be done with electric fans or by constructing of roof with “A”
type with a cap (or the so-called semi-monitor type.)
2. Maintaining feed intake
Feed consumption by milking cows begins to decrease at approximately 20 degree Celsius. When air
temperatures are above 33 degree Celsius, feed intake approaches zero. High humidity would further aggravate the

20. Effect of temperature on feed intake. Other factors include the quality of the roughage and the complex neural- hormonal
mechanisms involved in the control of appetite, in the regulation of body temperature.
3. Maintaining daily milk production
The decrease in daily milk yield under heat stress parallels the drop in feed consumption. Daily milk
production can be expected to decrease 1 kg for each degree Centigrade increase in rectal temperature.
4. Control flies
The presence of large numbers of flies in dairy buildings is irritating to cows and men, and visitors. Estimates
of the losses in production resulting from an ineffective fly-control program range from 5 to 10%. The requirements for an
effective program to control the fly population are:
-Elimination of breeding areas.
-Use of residual sprays as soon as the first flies appear
-Use of fly repellents (oil-base sprays) for cows
-Use of fly baits and other devices
-Use of specific measures for certain species of flies

21. IV. SOME PARAMETERS IN DAIRY CATTLE MANAGEMENT
- Lactation period : 305 days
- Dry period : 60 days
- Calving interval : 365 days
- Cows in the milking line : 80%
- Post partum breeding : 45 days
(Average days open less than 110)
- First breeding weight : 240 kg
- Age at 1st calving : 27 – 30 months
- Productive life : 3 years
- Annual culling rate : 25 – 35%
(Non-genetic culling less than 10%)
- Calf mortality less than 5%
- Cow mortality less than 2%
- Incidence of clinical mastitis less than 5%

22. THANK YOU …….