The document presents an extensive overview of curriculum studies, detailing definitions of curriculum, its components, various types such as formal, informal, actual, hidden, core, and extra-curricular curricula, and the importance of learning objectives and outcomes. It also discusses curriculum development in Zambia, highlighting historical reforms and processes involved in planning, selecting content, and evaluating learning experiences while considering the relationship between curriculum and education. Furthermore, it distinguishes between curriculum, syllabus, and program with practical insights on curriculum design approaches, including subject-centered, learner-centered, problem-centered, and core designs.

1. CURRICULUM STUDIES
By Mr. D. Kangwa.

2. LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define the concept curriculum.
• Outline the components of a curriculum.
• Differentiate among the term as curriculum, syllabus
and programme.
• Explain the relationship between curriculum and
education.
• Differentiate learning objectives from learning
outcomes.
• Explain the background to curriculum development
in Zambia.

3. DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
1. Tanner & Tanner (1995): a curriculum is a plan or program of all
experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a
school.
2. Gatawa (1990): looked at curriculum as the totality of the experiences
of children for which schools are responsible.
3. Sergiovanni & Starrat (1993): curriculum is that which a student is
supposed to encounter, study, practice and master. In other words,
what the student learns.
4. Beach and Reinhatz (1989): a curriculum outlines a prescribed series
of courses to take.
5. Tyler (1966): curriculum means all learning which is planned and
guided by the school, whether it is carried out in groups or
individually, in or outside the school.

4. DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
•Some authors define curriculum as the total
effort of the school to bring about desired
outcomes in school and out-of-school
situations.
•It is also defined as a sequence of potential
experiences set up in school for the purpose
of disciplining children and youth in group
ways of thinking and acting.

5. DEFINITION(S) OF CURRICULUM
•Curriculum – is a structured set of learning
outcomes or task that educators usually call
goals and objectives. ( Howell and Evans
1995)
•Curriculum – is the “what” of teaching.
•Curriculum – listings of subjects to be taught
in school.

6. CURRICULUM
•A document which describes a structured
series of learning objectives and
outcomes for a given subject matter area
•Includes a specification of what should be
learned, how it should be taught, and the
plan for implementing/assessing the
learning

7. CURRICULUM COMPONENTS OR ELEMENTS
1. What educational purposes should the school
seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided
that are likely to attain those purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be
effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes
are being achieved?

8. ACTIVITY 2
You can now reflect on the other questions and
identify the component of the curriculum implied in
each question.
• Question 1 _____
• Question 2 _____
• Question 3 _____
• Question 4 Evaluation.

9. ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A
CURRICULUM
These four elements or components of the
curriculum are in constant interaction:
1. Purpose (goals and objectives)
2.Content or subject matter
3.Methods or learning experiences
4.Evaluation

10. TYPES OF CURRICULUM
1. Formal curriculum
• What is laid down as the syllabus of that which is to be learnt by students. It is the officially
selected body of knowledge which the government, through the ministry of education or
anybody offering education, wants students to learn.
• can also be referred to as the work that teachers plan and use with students. This
curriculum meets specified objectives of educating identified groups of learners or students
in their varying settings. In other words, formal curriculum is the selected written
programmes or courses students go through.
2. Informal curriculum
• Urevbu (1985) refers to this curriculum as the curriculum in use. Teachers or instructors may
not adhere to the presented formal curriculum but can include other aspects of knowledge
derived from other sources. This additional material is called the “informal curriculum”.
3. Actual curriculum
• This refers to both written and unwritten syllabuses from which students encounter learning.
Learning experiences can be selected from other sources rather than the prescribed, official
and formal syllabuses. The actual curriculum is the total sum of what students learn and
teachers teach from both formal and informal curricula.

11. …TYPES OF CURRICULUM
1. Hidden curriculum
Urebvu (1985) describes the hidden curriculum as the non-academic educationally significant
component of schooling. The hidden curriculum is not written or officially recognized, its influence on
learning can manifest itself in the learners attitude or behavior both during and after completing their
studies. What is acquired or learned from the hidden curriculum is usually remembered longer than
the information learned at school. Tanner and Tanner (1975) recommend that positive learning from
the hidden curriculum should be acknowledged and treated as an integral part of the plan and
guided learning experiences.
2. Core curriculum
The term core curriculum does not imply an independent type of curriculum. It refers to the area of
study courses or subjects that students must understand in order to be recognized as educated in
that area of study. In other words core refers to the heart of experiences every learner must go
through. The learner has no option but to study the prescribed course or subjects.
3. Extra-mural curriculum (Extra Curricula Activities)
This refers to those learning activities or experiences learners are exposed to by their teachers but
which are not stipulated in the formal or official curriculum. Teachers deliberately plan and teach
these experiences and sometime even assess their outcomes. Coaching and training in various
sporting activities are some of the extra curricula learning experiences available to students.

12. CURRICULUM, SYLLABUS AND PROGRAMME
1. Curriculum refers to what is taught, and we can also add
here by stating that, not just what is taught, but also, what is
learnt outside the classroom.
2. Syllabus is an outline of work or summary of topics to be
covered in course for a given subject or class. We can also
say, a syllabus contains the content in the form of topics and
sub topics (Thungu J et al, 2008).
3. Programme: a number of courses or subjects with their
specific syllabi, e.g., what you have come to do here at
Evelyn Hone College, you have come to pursue a
programme of Teaching Methodology, which has a number
of courses, and these courses have got their syllabi, which is
prepared from the approved curriculum.

13. BASIS FOR COMPARISON SYLLABUS CURRICULUM
Meaning Syllabus is the document that
contains all the portion of the
concepts covered in a subject.
Curriculum is the overall content,
taught in an educational system or
a course.
Origin Syllabus is a Greek term. Curriculum is a Latin term.
Set for A subject A course
Nature Descriptive Prescriptive
Scope Narrow Wide
Set out by Exam board Government or the administration
of school, college or institute.
Term For a fixed term, normally a year. Till the course lasts.
Uniformity Varies from teacher to teacher. Same for all teachers.

14. ACTIVITY
1. Explain briefly why a syllabus is important
to the:
i. Teacher
ii. Learner
2. Outline any five (5) Content of a curriculum
from a practical aspect.
3. Give any three (3) relationships between
Curriculum and Education.

15. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION
• Instruction could be viewed as the means used to teach that which is taught.
characterized by methodology, the teaching act, implementation and presentation.
Therefore, instruction can be defined as the interaction between a teaching agent and
one or more individuals intending to learn.
• Instruction can also be said to be the creation and implementation of purposely
developed plans for the teaching of curriculum content. It is what teachers often refer to
as “planning” and “teaching.”
• The relationship between curriculum and instruction is so intimate that “curriculum and
instruction” is frequently spoken as if it were one word, curriculum being the content of
what is taught along with an overall process of how that content is to be taught, and
instruction being the more detailed plans and the way those plans are implemented in
order to teach the curriculum content, it becomes easy to understand that the two must
be compatible in order to maximize student learning. From the foregoing, it can be
asserted therefore that education is the process in which the curriculum and instruction
interact for the benefit of the learner. This is to say, what is taught and the means through
which it is taught interact within the process of education.
• Having looked at the relationship between curriculum and education, let us now focus on
the aspects of objectives and outcomes.

16. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
An objective is an intended change to be brought about
in the learner. Should be stated in terms of measureable
learner behavior, such as;
1.What to cover
2.What to emphasize.
3.What content to select
4.Which learning experiences to select.
•One of the expectations for you in this training
programme is to learn how to prepare learning
objectives.

17. LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Learning outcomes: are like ends. An outcome can be said to be
an encounter with learning or a learning activity which has been
planned by the teacher to provide the learner with an opportunity
to personalize learning. The focus of learning outcomes is on such
things as;
1. Interpersonal skills.
2.Intrapersonal skills.
3.Attitudes
4.Abilities
5.Knowledge

18. BACKGROUND TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA
Figure 1: The foundations of curriculum change in Zambia since independence.
The 1966
Education Act
The 1977
Educational Reforms
Educating Our
Future of 1996
1. The Act meant
to overhaul the
whole
education
system the
meet national
needs.
2. New subjects
were
introduced at
secondary level.
3. English as a
medium of
instruction was
introduced
from grade 1 to
7.
4. Zambia Primary
Course for
teachers was
also
introduced.
1. Introduction of
Basic schools grade
1 to 9 and High
School education,
10 – 12.
2. Emphasis on
survival and
communication
skills.
3. Practical subjects
such as industrial
art and home
economics were
revamped.
4. Communicative
methodologies
were the main
feature.
1. The Zambia
Teacher
Education
Course (ZATEC)
was introduced
which also
meant
changing the
teacher
education
curriculum.
2. The Primary
school
curriculum also
underwent
change to align
it to the ZATEC
programme.

19. ACTIVITY 3
1. Name the elements of a curriculum.
2. Differentiate between programme and
syllabus.
3. Distinguish between a learning objective and a
learning outcome.

20. UNIT 2: DESIGNING A CURRICULUM
•Learning outcomes: On completion of this unit, you will
be able to:
•Explain curriculum planning.
•Discuss the Subject – Centered design.
•Relate the learner – centered design to school learning.
•Explain the learner – centered design.
•Identify the Core Design in school learning.

21. CURRICULUM PLANNING
•A curriculum Plan is the advance
arrangement of learning opportunities for
a particular population of learners.
•A Curriculum guide is a written
curriculum.

22. CURRICULUM PLANNING
•A Curriculum Planning is the process
whereby the arrangement of
curriculum plans or learning
opportunities are created.

23. CURRICULUM PLANNING
•It is the process of preparing for the duties of
teaching, deciding upon goals and
emphases, determining curriculum content,
selecting learning resources and classroom
procedures, evaluating progress, and looking
toward next steps.

24. SELECTION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
• Every curriculum is aimed at developing in the learners
certain competencies or abilities.
• Curriculum aims range from the very broad to the more
specific. In fact, that is why we use the terms aims, goals and
objectives to refer to them.
1. Aims: are broad statements which cover all of the
experiences provided in the curriculum;
2. Goals: are tied to specific subjects or group of contents
within the curriculum; while
3. Objectives: describe the more specific outcomes that can be
attained as a result of lessons or instruction delivered at the
classroom.

25. FACTORS IN SELECTING AIMS
1. Analysis of our culture: we should take into account our cultural values,
norms and expectations when selecting aims,
2. The present status of the learner: what has the learner already known?
What are his/her characteristics? What is he/she ready for?
3. The state of our knowledge of the subject matter or content: We should
examine new developments in knowledge to see if they contain things that
are of real value to the learner and society.
4. Relevance to school’s philosophy of education: each nation has its own
philosophy of education which its schools try to implement. Nigeria’s
philosophy of education is contained in its National Policy on Education.
We should ask whether the objectives we select are relevant to this
philosophy;
5. Consistency with our theory of learning: at any time in any society, there is
a dominant conception of learning i.e. our understanding what learning is
and how it takes place. For instance, the National Policy on Education
anticipates that the Zambia child is active, exploratory and imaginative.

26. SELECTION OF CONTENT & LEARNING EXPERIENCES
•Content is what we teach; learning experience is an
activity which the learner engages in which results in
changes in his behaviour;
•We should select those contents and learning
experiences that will in attaining the goals of the
curriculum;
•There are some factors to consider in selecting both
learning experiences and content.
•We shall first examine those criteria for selecting
learning experiences

27. FACTORS IN SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. Validity: this refers to the relevance of the stated
learning experience to the stated goals of the
curriculum;
2. Relevance to life: learning experience must be related
to the learner’s real life situations in and out of school;
3. Variety: learning experiences must cater to the needs
of different types of learners by providing different
types of experiences;
4. Suitability: learning experiences must be suitable to
the learners present state of learning and
characteristics:

28. SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES…
1. Cumulation: even though experiences
provided may be different, they should all
lead to the attainment of the same goal;
subsequent experiences should build on
earlier ones;
2. Multiple Learning: a single learning
experience may bring about multiple
outcomes. Such learning experiences are
important because of their multiple
benefits.

29. FACTORS IN SELECTING CONTENT
1. Validity: means two things, is the content related to the
objectives, and is the content true or authentic;
2. Significance: is the content significant or will lead it to the
more mastery or more understanding of the course or
subject;
3. Utility: here the question is whether the content selected
is useful i.e. will lead to the acquisition of skills and
knowledge that are considered useful by society?
4. Interest: is the content interesting to the learner? Or can
the content be made interesting to learners?
5. Learnability: is the content selected such that learners can
learn and understand given their present level/

30. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
•It is defined as the process of selecting,
organizing, executing, and evaluating
learning experiences on the basis of the
needs, abilities and interests of the learners
and the nature of the society or community.

31. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
• Kerr (1968) also believes
that curriculum process
is a very comlex set of
activities and decisions
and they interact a lot.
• Changes made in
content may necessitate
changes in experiences,
which may again bring
about changes in
evaluation etc.
Objective
Content
Learning
Experience
Evaluation

32. CURRICULUM LABORATORY
•Curriculum laboratory is a place or workshop
where curriculum materials are gathered or used
by teachers or learners of curriculum.
•Resource Unit is a collection or suggested learning
activities and materials organized around a given
topic or area which a teacher might utilize in
planning, developing, and evaluating a learning
unit.

33. 2.2 SUBJECT – CENTERED DESIGN
•In this type of curriculum design, the focus of the
curriculum planners or developers is on the content
and skills to be mastered by the learners. The content
is divided into distinct areas called subjects and each
subject has its own logical order. The teaching and
learning processes take place according to a definite
sequence decided upon by the content specialists.

34. 2.3 THE LEARNER – CENTERED DESIGN
•In this design, the focus is on the learner. The
interests, the needs and the stage of
development of the learner are taken into
consideration. The learner determines what is to
be taught in this design of curriculum
development.

35. 2.4 THE PROBLEM – CENTERED DESIGN
• The problem – centered design tries to address those aspects of
life that affect society in a much broader way.
• There are issues that affect society and curriculum planners try to
come up with solutions from the point of view of learning.
• A good example is that of the problem of the HIV pandemic which
is now cutting across the subject areas. In other words, it has
become a cross – cutting issue as it cuts across the curriculum.
• A medical doctor will today not just look at the diseases affecting
patients from the biological point of view but also from the
psychological and emotional point of view of the patients.

36. 2.5 THE CORE DESIGN
•The term core design refers to the area of study,
courses or subjects that students must understand in
order to be recognized as educated in that area of
study. In other words core refers to the heart of
experiences every learner must go through. The learner
has no option but to study the prescribed course or
subjects. In the core design, an attempt is made to try
and integrate knowledge to serve the needs of
students, to promote active learning and to link life and
learning.

37. FIGURE 2: CURRICULUM DESIGNS
Subject centered
design
Curriculum
Development
Problem
centered
design
Learner
centered design
Core design

38. ACTIVITY
• Suppose you are a head teacher at a particular school. One
of the issues that you need to attend to at the beginning of
the year is to make a decision on the aspect of how to
manage the upper primary section of the school. On one
hand you have the view that suggests that you need to
allocate one teacher per class, in other words, to have
grade teachers. On the other hand, you have a different
view that suggests that you need to have subject teachers
taking turns to teach different grades from grade 5 to 7.
Which view would you consider for your school and suggest
the reasons why. State the design preferred in that case.

39. PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM
DESIGN
•Basically there are two major patterns of
curriculum design.
1. Centralized and the
2. Decentralized pattern.

40. CENTRALIZED PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGNING
A centralized curriculum: the content is decided upon the
central national office. The actual work in designing the
curriculum may be completed by a contracted company, a
parastatal organization or a division of the Ministry of
Education.
Characteristics (Gatawa, 1990; Urebvu, 19850):
• The following are centrally developed/decided upon:-
National syllabuses are produced with national goals and
philosophies in line with general learning objectives.
Subject content evaluation instruments and when and how to
administer these instruments rest with the Ministry of
Education or the Examination Board that has been assigned
the responsibility

41. ….CHARACTERISTICS
Subject to be offered by schools are determined centrally. Schools choose their
subjects from a given list
All learners talking the same subjects write the same examination to assess the
same skills. However, adjustments in testing are made for students who may have
certain disabilities.
Certification is centrally controlled. The certification indicates what has been
learned by the student and how well the student has performed compared to
others taking the same course.
Generally, textbooks must be approved by the Ministry of Education before any
school uses these books.
Normally, there are curriculum developments teams at different levels.
An inspectorate or standards control division is put in place to monitor the
learning and teaching activities
It takes a long time to write and approve the final curriculum document.

42. ADVANTAGES OF THE CENTRALIZED PATTERN OF
CURRICULUM DESIGN
• It makes it easy to achieve national goals, since all schools use the
same documents
• Learners can transfer from one school to another without being
disadvantaged.
• Entry requirements for universities and colleges can be centrally
determined and can be ensured.
• Communication to schools regarding academic requirements is easy,
since the Ministry of education is directly involved.
• Learning materials can be mass produced, making them less expensive
for both producers and consumers.
• Institutions can be well staffed and richly serviced because they draw a
national pool of expertise and resources.

43. DISADVANTAGES OF A CENTRALIZED PATTERN OF
CURRICULUM DESIGN
• The process takes a long time, before the final document is produced.
• The design is insensitive to the needs of some groups within the country.
• There are coordination and communication problems when parastatals are
involved in curriculum design.
• There is limited participation by various members of the community,
resulting in little commitment during the implementation stage.
• It stifles creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher and other
community members.
• Generally, the centralized pattern stresses contents, mainly knowledge, at
the expense of the development of attitudes and skills. There is a scramble
for certificates, with little regard for the development and demonstration of
productive skills.

44. DECENTRALIZED PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
•The decentralized pattern of curriculum
design occurs when the local authorities
or individual states draft their own
curriculum. This type of designing is
common in developed countries.

45. CURRICULUM DESIGNING
• Local communities initiate the changes to suit their local
needs.
• Teachers work with parents to determine the content. The
learning experiences are based on what is available.
• Subjects in schools could be the same, but the content will
vary from school to school, state to state, or district to
district.
• Each school or district has its own syllabus that is produced
locally.
• Generally, the textbooks may not have been centrally
approved.
• Each school, or district has its own form of evaluation
• Very few people are involved in curriculum designing

46. 1. STATE OR DISTRICT BASED CURRICULUM
DESIGNING
• In principle, these have the same structure as the
centralized structure that was discussed earlier in this
section. The only difference is that each district or state
will have the final approval on contents. However, each
curriculum produced should meet the national goals.
In general, the same types of people involved in the
centralized pattern are also involved at state or district
levels.

47. LOCAL AUTHORITIES
• Institutions and responsible authorities such as town boards and
churches may be involved in curriculum development. Normally
they would depend on the teachers, heads of schools, subjects.
• Specialist, industry representatives, researchers and consultants to
draft the curriculum. Consultants and teachers usually outline the
content and learning experiences. Assessments and evaluation are
conducted by a board of the local authority’s choice. Continuous
assessment is generally the norm in schools with a decentralized
pattern of curriculum designing.
• Like the centralized patterns, the decentralized pattern of
curriculum designing, has some advantages and disadvantages.

48. ADVANTAGES OF THE DECENTRALIZED PATTERN
•The curriculum addresses local needs
•The local community is directly involved and is
committed to its implementation.
•The system encourages creativity and initiative on the
part of the teacher.
•It takes less time to produce the curriculum than it
would take when a centralized pattern is used.
•Students learn what is relevant to the local community.

49. DISADVANTAGES OF THE DECENTRALIZED
PATTERN
•There is no guarantee that national goals will be
achieved.
•Learners cannot easily transfer from one school to
another when their families move
•There is generally a problem in developing or accessing
teaching material which, if available, are expensive to
produce.
•There may not be adequate expertise in the local
community to develop part of the curriculum

50. ACTIVITY
1. Explain the following terms in your own words.
• Formal curriculum
• Core curriculum
• Curriculum design
2. Suggest the type of curriculum design used in our Zambian
schools.
3. The Zambian school curriculum planning emphasizes the
core design in the primary school level. Discuss the weaknesses
and strengths of this design.
4. Distinguish between the centralized and decentralized
patterns of curriculum design.

51. MODULE 2: CURRICULUM STUDIES
Learning outcomes
• On completion of this module, you will be able to:
•Explain curriculum concepts
•Design a curriculum
•Analyze the curriculum development process
•Implement the curriculum
•Evaluate a curriculum
•Change and innovate the curriculum.

52. UNIT 3: THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
• Learning outcomes: On completion of the unit, you will
be able to:
1. Outline the factors that influence curriculum
development.
2. Discuss the various models of curriculum design.
3. Compare curriculum design models.
4. Explain the steps in curriculum design in relation to
models of curriculum design.

53. INTRODUCTION
• Curriculum development is a complex but systematic
process. This unit describes a variety of models of curriculum
development in order to make this complex activity
understandable and manageable. It is important for you as a
teacher to understand how the curriculum you are using in
your school was designed. But before we understand the
models of curriculum design, let us first look at the factors
that influence curriculum development.

54. 3.1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
1. Aware of the factors that influence curriculum design
will enable you to understand how the content,
teaching and the learning experiences prepared for
your learners are selected.
2. You also be enabled to develop insight into the
selection of methods you can use to deliver this
content.
3. Therefore, this unit will help you to understand the
various factors that influence curriculum design. The
first factor that we shall consider therefore is politics.

55. 3.1.1 THE INFLUENCE POLITICS ON CURRICULUM
DESIGN - ACTIVITY
•Explain how politics influence
curriculum design.

56. 1.1.2 THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL FACTORS ON
CURRICULUM DESIGN
1. When you examine the curriculum being offered, one question you may need to deal with
is the extent to which social factors’ considerations influenced the design of the curriculum.
2. Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered
when designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school
system should look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to look at these
societal considerations. Failure to do so renders the curriculum irrelevant. For a country like
Zambia where there are so many religious beliefs, curriculum designing ought to take into
consideration all these religious orientations.
3. It also becomes imperative that such aspects of society such as culture should not be
ignored. These should be reflected in the design of curricular materials and their
presentation because the culture of the society must be accommodated. Sometimes the
curriculum has been used to foster inequalities, this should not be the case. A good
curriculum is that which gender sensitive.

57. THE INFLUENCE OF ECONOMIC FACTORS ON
CURRICULUM DESIGN
• Education is usually heavily financed by governments in order to
improve the country’s economy. Therefore, it becomes imperative that the
national curriculum should realigned to the requirements of the economy.
• The question you will definitely need to address a student of curriculum
studies is, how does the economy of the country affect the curriculum?
• The parents send their children to school so that one day they can find
employed to enable them realize their dreams and ambitions. The would be
employers represented by industry do have certain skills that they expect
prospective employees to exhibit.
• These skills needed by industry need to be translated into content and
learning experiences. The skills, knowledge base and attitudes required by
industry should be developed in the classroom.

58. THE INFLUENCE TECHNOLOGY ON CURRICULUM
DESIGN
1. The computer is still one the latest technologies that
impacted education and society significantly. It is for this
very reason that technology is said to be one of the
determinants of the school curriculum.
2. Today in Zambia, we are talking about ICTs being
compulsory in the school curriculum. The intention is to
equip the learners with the requisite computer skills and
knowledge. This is a very clear demonstration that
curriculum designers have not failed to take
technological advancements seriously in issues of
curriculum design.

59. THE INFLUENCE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON
CURRICULUM DESIGN
•You are probably aware of the fact that climate change
and environmental protection have become key issues
in environmental education. It is also very common in
the world today to link sustainable development to
environmental protection.
•This is so because consideration of the environment
today has a bearing on the survival of future
generations. It is for this very reason that lesson about
how human activities affect our environment are
included in curriculum designing.

60. THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY ON CURRICULUM
DESIGN
1. Theories child development and learning have to
be considered when designing the curriculum
simply because learning ca be maximized by
ensuring that activities and experiences are
introduced at the most appropriate stage of
development if learning is to be effective.
2. Having discussed the factors that influence
curriculum development, we shall now focus our
attention on the models that are used in the
process of curriculum development. The first one
that we shall consider is the Rational Model.

61. 3.2 THE RATIONAL MODEL
This model was proposed by Tyler and for that very reason it
is also referred to as Tyler’s model. Tyler’s model for
curriculum development is based on the following questions:
1. What education purposes should the school seek to
attain?
2. What education experiences can be provided that are
likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these education experiences be effectively
organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being
attained?

62. STEPS IN THE RATIONAL MODEL
1. Step 1: Objectives
Sources: Learner, Life, and Subject Specialists
2. Step 2: Selection of Learning
Experiences
3. Step 3: Organization of Learning
Experiences
4. Step 4: Evaluation

63. 3.3 THE CYCLICAL MODEL (WHEELER’S
MODEL)
•Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an
improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead of a
linear model, wheeler developed a cyclical
model. Evaluation in wheeler’s model is not
terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed
back into the objectives and the goals, which
influence other stages.

64. WHEELER’S MODEL
2. Selection of
learning
experiences
3. Section of
content
4. Organisation
& integration of
learning
experiences
5.
Evaluation
1. Aim goals &
Objectives

65. ACCORDING TO THIS MODEL BY WHEELER:
1. Aims or ultimate goals should be
considered as outcomes.
2. Aims are formulated from the general to
the specific.
3. Content is distinguished from the learning
experiences which determine that content.

66. UNIT 4: IMPLEMENTING THE
CURRICULUM
1. Define curriculum implementation.
2. Discuss the steps in the curriculum
implementation process.
3. Identify and discuss the roles of education
administrators and trainers in curriculum
implementation.
4. Explain the challenges of curriculum
implementation.

67. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
• To put into practice the officially prescribed courses of study, syllabuses and subjects.
• The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or experience. It is
important to note that curriculum implementation cannot take place without the
learner.
• it takes place as the learner acquire the planned or intended experiences, knowledge,
skills, ideas, and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to function
effectively in a society.
• Curriculum implementation also refers to the stages when the curriculum itself, as an
educational programme, is put into effect.
• implementation is the manner in which the teacher selects and mixes the various
aspects of knowledge contained in a curriculum document or syllabus.
• Implementation takes place when the teacher, constructed syllabus, the teacher’s
personality, the teaching materials and the teaching environment interact with the
learner (University of Zimbabwe module, 1995).
• to how the planned or officially designed courses of study is translated by the teacher
into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to students.

68. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION: 1. THE TEACHER
1. teachers role in curriculum implementation is autonomous. They
select and decide what to teach from the prescribed syllabus or
curriculum.
2. the interaction of the learner and the planned learning opportunities,
the role and influence of the teacher in the process is indisputable
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995). I
3. f the teacher is not knowledgeable about some aspects of the content
of the curriculum, he or she might choose to ignore it altogether.
4. Teachers have to be included in the processes of curriculum
development because they are the ones who have to implement the
curriculum.

69. 2. THE LEARNERS
•Learners are said to be the ones who hold the key to
what is taught.
•The official curriculum can be quite different from the
curriculum that is actually implemented.
•The learner factor influences teachers in their selection
of learning experiences, hence the need to consider
the diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum
implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
•For example, home background and learner ability can
determine what is actually achieved in the classroom.

70. RESOURCE MATERIALS AND FACILITIES
•From your experience, you are aware that
no meaningful teaching and learning take
place without adequate resource materials.
•such as textbook, teaching aids and
stationery.
•Physical facilities such as classrooms,
laboratories, workshops, libraries and sports
fields.

71. Figure 4: An illustration of the process of curriculum development
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Planning of learning
experiences on the basis of
national policies
Production of instructional
materials
Trial and testing of
instructional plans and
educational materials
Implementation of the
programme of instruction
Assessment of learning
outcomes
This illustration
demonstrates that
implementation of the
curriculum is part and parcel
of the broader process of
curriculum development.
According to the figure
above, implementation
starts from step 3 where
there is trail and testing of
instructional plans and
educational materials.

72. FIGURE 5. AN
ILLUSTRATIO
N OF THE
BROADER
PROCESS OF
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPME
NT
1. Needs
Assessment
2. Conceptualization on
and Policy formulation
3. Curriculum design
4. Syllabus Development
5.
Selection/Developm
ent of curriculum
6. Teacher
preparation/training
7. Pretesting, piloting
and correcting
8. National
implementation
9. Review or revision of
the curriculum

73. ACTIVITY
1. From the figure above, identify steps
within the curriculum development
process which are very critical prior to
the implementation phase.
2. Briefly explain the reasons for your
choices

74. 4.2 ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATORS AND TRAINERS
1. Monitoring and evaluation
2. Supervision
3. Provision of materials necessary for implementation
4. Preparing people and the entire organization for
the change.
5. Taking corrective measures when things go wrong

75. TRAINERS’ ROLES IN CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION
The most important role of a trainer in
the implementation phase is that of
putting the change or new curriculum to
effect. Trainers are the key agents of the
implementation process.

76. 4.3 CHALLENGES OF CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION
Sometimes, very good programmes are not successfully
implemented due to a number of reasons or challenges. Some
of these challenges include the following;
1. Ambiguous objectives.
2. Inadequate or lack of resources.
3. Lack of inclusion of key personnel at development stage.
Most of the implementers are not part of the process from the
beginning. They are only called upon to implement and
sometimes they fail to do due to lack of adequate knowledge.

77. ACTIVITY
1. Define the concept curriculum implementation.
2. Briefly explain the roles of the school head in
curriculum implementation.
3. Explain some of the challenges faced during
implementation of the school curriculum.

78. MODULE 3
• CURRICULUM STUDIES MODULE THREE

79. LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain curriculum concepts
2. Design a curriculum
3. Analyze the curriculum development process
4. Implement the curriculum
5. Evaluate a curriculum
6. Change and innovate the curriculum.

80. UNIT 5: EVALUATING A CURRICULUM
1. Define curriculum evaluation.
2.Discuss the nature and purpose of evaluation
3.Explain the types of evaluation.
4.Describe the criteria for curriculum evaluation.
5.Explain the role of trainers in curriculum
evaluation.

81. 5.1 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION
According to Gatawa (1990) the concept curriculum evaluation has three
major meanings:
1. The process of describing and judging an educational programme or
subject.
2. The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviorally
stated objectives.
3. The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for
decision – making purposes.
Each of these points does not exist in isolation. A closer look at the three
points brings out one clear fact, that the three meanings or activities are
interlinked, what matters is at what point of instruction or the
programme does one focus on one aspect of evaluation.

82. EVALUATION ACTIVITIES
1. The first activity deals with the collection of descriptive and
judgmental information which is used to ascertain whether
the programme or subject is doing what is expected.
2. The second activity is concerned with comparing students’
performance against the set standards. Such an evaluation
determines the extent to which the objectives of a subject or
programme are being realized. This is the type of evaluation
that teachers do on a daily basis.
3. The third activity is focusses on the identification of
deficiencies in an educational programme or syllabus for
the purpose of effecting revision and improvement.

83. 5.2 THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF
EVALUATION
According to Urevbu (1985) curriculum evaluation serves two major
functions and these are;
1. Decision making.
2. Self – evaluation.
While curriculum evaluation can be said to have two major functions, its
focus is threefold. It can be stated that though curriculum evaluation
focuses on the whole curriculum or programme, in order to establish
whether it has deficiencies or not, three things are looked at and these
include;
1. The objectives of the curriculum.
2. The content of the curriculum and the methodologies in use.
3. Outcomes of the curriculum.

84. 5.3 TYPES OF EVALUATION.
According to Gatawa (1990) five different types or approaches to curriculum
evaluation can be utilized and these are;
1. Bureaucratic evaluation, which is usually initiated by the government or the
ministry of education. The ministry of education can evaluate a course or subject
taught in schools to find out whether they need improvement or modifications.
The results of the evaluation are then used accordingly by the ministry or
government.
2. Autocratic evaluation, which focuses on what is considered to be the educational
needs of the curriculum. In this situation, independent evaluators and consultants
are engaged to carry out evaluation. The government in this case is not obliged
to accept the results of the evaluation.
3. Democratic evaluation, which focuses on the experiences and reactions that the
initiators of the curriculum may have with the programme of subject being
evaluated.

85. ….CONT’D
4. Norm – referenced evaluation, where the evaluator
evaluates students’ performance relative to that of other
students.
5. Criterion – referenced evaluation. This type of
evaluation measures students’ actual performance and
compares it with the objectives of instruction identified in
the syllabus.

86. 5.4 THE CRITERIA FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION
A variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluations and these
can include the following;
a) Observations
b) Interviews
c) Tests
d) Questionnaires
It is important to state that sometimes models such as the CIPP model are
used to carry out evaluations.
There are a number of models that are at the disposal of a teacher for
curriculum evaluation.
You will also have to bear in mind that just as the objectives were very
important in the development of the curriculum, the same objectives are key
elements of evaluation as they reveal the intention of the planners or
developers of the curriculum.

87. PURPOSE OF EVALUATION
•Improve
•Maintain
•Stop

88. OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION
•Discover whether and how effectively the
objectives are being met
•Discover unplanned and unexpected
consequences
•Determine underlying policies and related
activities that contribute to success or failure in
particular areas
•Provide continuous feedback

89. CONTEXT, INPUT, PROCESS, AND
PRODUCT EVALUATION
The CIPP Model

90. Aspect of
evaluation
Type of decision Kind of question
answered
Context Planning
decisions
What should we
do?
Input Structuring
decisions
How should we
do it?
Process Implementing
decisions
Are we doing it as
planned? And if
not, why not?
Product Recycling
decisions
Did it work?

91. CIPP MODEL
•Simple systems model applied to evaluation.
1. Context evaluation,
2. Input evaluation,
3. Process evaluation, and
4. Product evaluation.
•these can be viewed as separate forms of
evaluation, but
•they can also be viewed as steps or stages in a
comprehensive evaluation

92. FORMS OF EVALUATION
FORMATIVE < --------- > SUMMATIVE
With the CIPP model, there is a clear distinction between
1. formative evaluation (conducted for the purpose of
improving the program) and
2. summative evaluation (conducted for the purpose of
accountability which requires determining the overall
effectiveness or merit of the program).

93. CONTEXT EVALUATION
1. includes examining and describing the context
of the program being evaluated,
2. conducting a needs and goals assessment,
3. determining the objectives of the program,
and
4. determining whether the proposed objectives
will be sufficiently responsive to the identified
needs. It helps in making program planning
decisions.

94. INPUT EVALUATION
1. includes activities such as a description of the program inputs
and resources,
2. a comparison of how the program might perform compared
to other programs,
3. a prospective benefit/cost assessment (i.e., decide whether
you think the benefits will outweigh the costs, before it is
actually implemented),
4. an evaluation of the proposed design of the program, and
5. an examination of what alternative strategies and procedures
should be considered and recommended.
6. In short, this type of evaluation examines what the program
plans on doing. It helps in making program structuring
decisions.

95. PROCESS EVALUATION
1. includes examining how a program is being implemented,
2. monitoring how the program is performing,
3. auditing the program to make sure it is following required legal and
ethical guidelines, and
4. identifying defects in the procedural design or in the implementation
of the program.
5. It is here that evaluators provide information about what is actually
occurring in the program.
6. Evaluators typically provide this kind of feedback to program
personnel because it can be helpful in making formative evaluation
decisions (i.e., decisions about how to modify or improve the
program).
7. In general, process evaluation helps in making implementing
decisions.

96. PRODUCT EVALUATION
1. includes determining and examining the general and specific
outcomes of the program (using impact or outcome
assessment techniques),
2. measuring anticipated outcomes,
3. attempting to identify unanticipated outcomes,
4. assessing the merit of the program,
5. conducting a retrospective benefit/cost assessment (to
establish actual worth or value), and/or conducting a cost
effectiveness assessment (to determine if the program is cost
effective compared to other similar programs).
6. Product evaluation is very helpful in making summative
evaluation decisions (e.g., What is the merit and worth of the
program? Should it be continued?)

97. 5.5 THE ROLE OF TRAINNERS IN CURRICULUM
EVALUATION
• You will recall that trainers play a very important role in the
implementation stage of the curriculum. Their influence is
not just limited to implementation as is often the case. They
also have a role to play in the evaluation process. Some of
their roles include the following;
1. Examining the objectives used in the teaching process.
2. Reviewing the content of the syllabus.
3. Looking at the records of performance of the learners.
4. Collecting evidence of performance and content.
5. Drafting evaluation reports and making
recommendations.

98. ACTIVITY
1. Differentiate between formative and
summative evaluation.
2.State the two major purposes of evaluation.

99. UNIT 6: CHANGING AND INNOVATING THE CURRICULUM
1. Define the terms curriculum and curriculum
innovation.
2. Explain the curriculum change process.
3. Discuss the curriculum innovation process.
4. Discuss models that explain the curriculum
innovation process.
5. Explain the dynamics of curriculum change.

100. 6.1 CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION.
Curriculum Change
1. Hoyle (as cited in the University of Zimbabwe module, 1995)
defines change as embracing the concepts of innovation,
development, renewal and improvement of a curriculum.
2. Curriculum change is dictated by a number of factors such as
the changes in the economic, social and technological
aspects of a society.
3. Change has magnitude and direction and occurs within a
definite time frame (university of Zimbabwe, 1995).

101. 2. CURRICULUM INNOVATION
1. Harris et.al. Cited in the University of Zimbabwe module, (1995)
describes innovation as “an intentional and deliberate process to
bring out desired effects and change”.
2. Curriculum innovation refers to ideas or practices that are new and
different from those that exist in the formal prescribed curriculum.
3. curriculum innovation is any improvement that is deliberate,
measurable, durable and unlikely to occur frequently.
4. It is the creation, selection, organization and utilization of human
material resources in ways that result in higher achievement of
curriculum goals and objectives.
5. both processes, differ in the sense that while innovations can be
planned, change usually is not planned as it may come about in
response to other external factors.

102. 6.2 THE CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION
PROCESSES
1. Change and innovation in the curriculum are necessitated
by factors in a country’s political,
2. social, economic, culture and technological environments
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
3. The education system changes in order to address
these emerging needs and demands. Educational
changes and innovations in most countries, including
Zambia are products of these factors.

103. ACTIVITY
•Zambia has just seen a number of changes and
innovations to its school curriculum. Identify
some of the factors that could have sparked off
this wave of curriculum change and innovation.

104. SOURCES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION
• At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate
policy decisions. In most Southern African countries, nothing happens within
the education system until the central authority decides to adopt a new idea
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995). This change is usually initiated through a
circular or statutory instrument.
• According to the University of Zimbabwe Module cited above, policy
decisions that are deliberate can be a source of change.
• Sometimes we cannot evade the desire of authorities at various levels to
deliberately change established practices in order to address existing
problems or identify new problems and ways of dealing with these
problems.
• The introduction of new technology can also lead to curriculum change and
innovation. For example, computers are being used in almost every
endeavor of our society.

105. 6.3 MODELS FOR CURRICULUM INNOVATION
The Research, Development and Diffusion Model.
In this model, an innovation is conceived at the
head or center and then fed into the system. This
views the processes of change as a rational
sequence of phases in which an innovation is:
1. Inverted or discovered
2.Developed Produced and
3.Disseminated to the user.

106. 2. Problem-Solving Model. This model is
built around the users of the innovation,
who follows the steps below.
1.Determine the problem
2.Search for an innovation
3.Evaluate the trials
4.Implement the innovation.

107. 3. SOCIAL INTERACTION MODEL
In this model, change proceeds or diffuses through
formal or informal contacts between interacting
social groups. It is based on the following factors:
1. Awareness of innovation
2. Interest in the innovation
3. Trial
4. Adoption for permanent use

108. 6.4 DYNAMICS OF CURRICULUM CHANGE
This process involves four major factors. these factors include, (University of
Zimbabwe, 1995):
1. The change agent. In your situation, change agents include teachers, school heads,
local authorities or the Ministry of education. The agent initiates the innovation or
curriculum change in general.
2. The innovation. This involves executing the change itself; that is, putting it into use
or operation.
3. The user system. This relates to the person or group of people at which the
innovation is directed.
4. Time. Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time.
It is very important to note that these factors will always interact with change and are
as such changed by each other during the process of innovation. It is also important to
note that the curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the planning and
the strategies, and is frequently the user of the innovation.

109. THE INNOVATION PROCESS
Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:
1. Identify a problem, Dissatisfaction or need that requires attention
2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need
3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified
as the most appropriate
4. Conduct a trial
5. Evaluate the proposed solution
6. Review the evaluation
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it
on a wide scale
8. Adopt and institutionalize the innovation or search for another
solution.

110. INNOVATION PLANNING
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following
are considered in the process (University of Zimbabwe, 1995):
1. The personnel to be employed
2. The specification of the actual task
3. The strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
4. The equipment needed
5. The buildings and conducive environment
6. The costs involved
7. Social contexts
8. Time involved sequencing of activities
9. Rationale for undertaking the innovation
10. Evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation

111. CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF
INNOVATIONS
What conditions are necessary for users to implement the curriculum change or
innovation successfully? Potential users of an innovation are more likely to
accept it if the conditions below are met (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
1. The innovation must be relevant to them
2. It must be feasible in their particular organizational context
3. It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of their
system
4. It must be seen as posing little or no threat to the user group’s identity,
integrity and territory. The innovation must be shown to be tolerable and
non- threatening.
5. The innovation must yield material or non- material benefits. Gains in social
status or recognition could be some of the non-material benefits.
6. It must be flexible and adaptable.

112. ACTIVITY
1. Differentiate between change and
innovation.
2. State the sources of curriculum
change and innovation.