Chapter 1. Curriculum Design and Instructions

pg. 1 Curriculum Design and Instructions _Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar)
Introduction to curriculum and instruction
Etymologically, the term curriculum is derived from the Latin word “currere” which means run or runway
or a running course. There is available a multiplicity of concepts of curriculum since educationists give their
own different interpretations of the content and functions of curriculum. Let us discuss three such concepts
by three different thinkers, which represent three major contributions to the body of knowledge on
curriculum.
• The first concept, stated by Albert Oliver, refers to curriculum merely as the educational program
consisting of three important elements, such as studies, activities and guidance.
• The second concept, described by Philip Phenix, is based on a carefully thought out scheme of values
which constitute the aims and objectives, or purposes of education.
• The third concept, given by Hilda Taba, looks at curriculum as the function of the public school, she
listed the three functions as; preserving and transmitting cultural heritage, serving as an instrument for
transformation of culture, and working as a means for individual development.
1.1. THE DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
Albert Oliver (1977) explained that curriculum is “the educational program of the school” and divided into
four basic elements: 1) program of studies, 2) program of experiences, 3) program of service, 4) hidden
curriculum”.
Caswell and Campbell (1935) stated that “curriculum is composed of all of the experiences children have
under the guidance of the teacher."
Ralph Tyler (1957) defined that “the curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned by and
directed by the school to attain its educational goals”.
Krug (1957) noted that “Curriculum consists of all the means of instruction used by the school to provide
opportunities for student learning experiences leading to desired learning outcomes”.
Robert Gagne (1967) Curriculum is a sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the learning of
each unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the capabilities described by specified prior units
(in the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner. (p. 23).
Ralph Tylor (1957) [The curriculum is] all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school to
attain its educational goals (p. 79).

1.2. VARIOUS FORMS OF CURRICULUM
Overt, explicit, or written
curriculum
Is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling
experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and
supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support
the intentional instructional agenda of a school.
Societal curriculum (or social
curricula)
Cortes (1981) defines this curriculum as:…[the] massive, ongoing,
informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, churches,
organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that
“educate” all of us throughout our lives.
The hidden or covert
curriculum
Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for
this term – the “hidden curriculum,” which refers to the kinds of
learnings children derive from the very nature and organizational
design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes
of teachers and administrators
Subject-Centered Curriculum Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a subject matter or
discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on
math or biology. This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the
subject rather than the individual.
Learner-Centered
Curriculum
Learner-centered curriculum design takes everyone’s needs, interests,
and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that
students are not uniform and adjusts to those student needs. Learner-
centered curriculum design is meant to empower learners and allow
them to shape their education through choices.
Teacher-centered curriculum In teacher centered education, students pull all their focus on the teacher.
The teacher talks, while the student exclusively listen. It is primary role
of teacher to pass knowledge & information onto their students. In this
approach, teaching & assessment are viewed as two separate entities.
Student learning is measured through objectively scored test &
assessment.

Activity Based Curriculum Activity based curriculum determine the genuine need and interest of
learner which is turn from the basic of curriculum. An importance of
claim of this approach is that “people only learn what they experience.”
Core Curriculum A core curriculum is a set of educational goals, explicitly taught (and
not taught), focused on making sure that all students involved learn
certain material tied to a specific age or grade level.
Integrated Curriculum According to Roberts & kellough, (2000) “The term integrated
curriculum refers to a way of teaching, planning, & organizing so the
discrete disciplines of subject matter are integrated and match the
developmental needs of the learner, help to meaningfully connect the
student’ learning to their current and past experiences”
1.3. ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM: OBJECTIVES, CONTENT SELECTION, CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION, EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM.
There are four key elements of curriculum development:
1-Formulation of objectives
Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject matter/content: what subject
matter is to be included, the learning experience” what instructional strategies, resources and activities will
be employed, and the evaluation approaches , while curriculum evaluation is“ what methods and instruments
will be used to assess the results of the curriculum. The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what
is to be done. It tries to capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission
statement and objectives. Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon
and try what to drive at.
2-Selection of Content
One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. It contains information to be learned
in school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished. In organizing the
learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity form a sound content.
3-Teaching strategies and methods
For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are the core of the
curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content

in order to produce an outcome. These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover,
mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
4-Evaluation
the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of
the program, process and product of the curriculum. With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify
the curriculum by bringing about desirable changes such as most frequently Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model for
curriculum evaluation.
Difference between Curriculum Development and Curriculum Design
Curriculum development Curriculum Design
CURRICULUM INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Content clarity Context clarity
Flow of contents Collection of applications
Base of getting knowledge Execution of knowledge for experience
What is to be taught How it should be taught
What is to be assessed How it should be assessed
What need not be taught How to cover even what is not taught
Materials of knowledge Tools of using the materials
1.4 NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR CURRICULUM
Needs analysis (or needs assessment) refers to the systematic investigation of needs for the design and
assessment of curriculum. Needs assessment is an important stage of both curriculum development and
Curriculum implementation. Thus, needs assessment inform important information and decisions for
school curriculum development.
Studding the development of needs assessment curriculum, can be concluded the following:
• All the proposed models share needs assessment at the stage of curriculum development.
• There is no agreement on the position of needs assessment in curriculum, particularly, the question that
whether needs assessment is the first step of curriculum or it is an approach that takes place after devel-
oping the objectives.
• curriculum is considered such a dynamic process in which needs assessment is not limited to development
of curriculum (but includes) the curriculum implementation.

• Curriculum ‘needs assessment’ is a pluralistic process. curriculum at the national level, one dealing with
different local needs that are impressed by belief values, and in general, with sub - cultures.
• Curriculum needs assessment is a flexible process.
• The view in which curriculum is considered reactive is believed that needs assessment is the only way to
specify and the only way to determine some expected objectives.
By proactive view. one believes that objectives are determined based on the need assess
Purpose of Curriculum Assessment
Curriculum Assessment is the process of collecting information for use in evaluation. Curriculum
assessment may achieve the following purposes:
1. Highlight curriculum expectations
2. Gather information about what students know and can do.
3. Motivate students to learn better.
4. Motivate and encourage teachers to meet the identified needs of students.
5. Provide evidence to tell how well the students have learned.
6. Obtain feedback that helps teachers, students and parents make good decisions to guide instructions.
Common sources of quantitative and qualitative data for need assessment

1.5. HOW CURRICULUM DEFERS FROM SYLLABUS COURSE OF STUDY
Curriculum Course Syllabus
Curriculum is the overall planned
learning experiences and activities
provided by educational system
inside or outside the classroom to
attain predetermined goals.
Course is a path, sequence, and
development of curriculum. It
is a set of classes or a plan of
study on a particular subject,
usually leading to assessment
and evaluation.
Syllabus is the document that
contains all the portion of the
concepts covered in a subject.
Curriculum is a Latin term. Course is a Latin term. Syllabus is a Greek term.
Wide Narrow Narrow
For a fixed term as for a program of
study.
Till the course lasts. Till the course lasts.
Curriculum is based on the
philosophy, goals and values of
education.
Course does not take into
account these factors.
Syllabus does not take into
account these factors.
There is prescribed co-curricular and
extra – curricular activities in the
curriculum.
No prescribed co-curricular
and extra-curricular activities.
No prescribed co-curricular
and extra-curricular activities.
Curriculum includes not only indoor
activities but also out-door activities
of the school.
Course is concerned with
activities mostly undertaken in
the classroom (in-door
activities).
Syllabus is concerned with
activities mostly undertaken in
the classroom (in-door
activities).
Same for all teachers. Varies from teachers to
teachers.
Varies from teachers to
teachers.
It is an inclusive concept. It includes
course and syllabus also.
It is a part of a curriculum. It is a part of a curriculum.
1.5.3. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
An educational program is defined as a collection of educational activities which are organized to
accomplish a pre-determined objective or the completion of a specified set of educational tasks. The term
educational activities have a broader meaning than for instance the terms “course” or “class”. Educational
activities can be courses (e.g. the study of individual subjects) organized into programs as well as

freestanding courses. They can also include a variety of components not normally characterized as courses,
for example interludes of work experience in enterprises, research projects, and preparation of dissertations.
So, an educational program could simply be the study of a single subject/discipline leading to a recognized
qualification or it can be the study of a collection of subjects, along with perhaps a period of work
experience, all of which contribute towards the same qualification aim.
1.5.4. TEACHING
Traditional concept: - Teaching is the act of imparting instructions to the learners in the classroom
situation. It is traditional classroom teaching. In traditional classroom teaching the teacher gives information
to students, or one of the students, or one of the students reads from a textbook, while the other students
silently follow him in their not merely imparting knowledge or information to students. While imparting
knowledge teacher should kept in mind the child as well as the orderly presentation of subject-matter.
Modern concept: Teaching is to cause the pupil to learn and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and
desirable ways of living in the society. It is a process in which learner, teacher, curriculum and other
variables are organized in a systematic and psychological way to attain some pre-determined goals.
Smith’s view: In words of B.O. Smith, “Teaching is a system of actions intended to produce learning.”
N.L. Gage (1962) “Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential
of another person”.
1.5.5. INSTRUCTION
The definition of instruction and curriculum is subjective. Both curriculum and instruction may take on
different meanings based on the purpose or interpretation whether political, social, or educational.
Curriculum is what is taught in schools, instruction is how curriculum is delivered and learning is what
knowledge or skill has been acquired. The most common definition of curriculum is based on overt
curriculum which supports an intentional instructional agenda of an educational institute. Furthermore,
curriculum is the content of what is being taught and instruction is the implementation of teaching according
academic curriculum.
According to Random (2016) the term instruction is derived from the late Middle English word instruction
meaning to provide structure and direction.
1.5.6. LEVEL OF CURRICULUM
The term levels of curriculum refer to the degree of remoteness from the students for whom the curricula
were planned. These levels include societal, institutional, instructional, and experiential curricula.
• The societal level is curriculum farthest removed from learners and is designed by the public, including
politicians, representatives of special interest groups, administrators at different levels, and professional
specialists. Using socio-political processes, these groups often decide the goals, the topics to be studied, the
time to be spent, and the materials to be used.

• Institutional level curricula serve schools and are derived largely from societal curricula with
modifications by local educators and laypersons. This curriculum is commonly organized according to
subjects and includes the topics and themes to be studied. Institutional curricula include the district or
schools’ written documents containing standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and guides. Sometimes this
curriculum, also called the explicit curriculum, is the target of reform efforts.
• The instructional curriculum refers to the one that teachers plan and deliver in schools. Teachers base
instructional curricula on what has been determined as necessary or desirable for their school by school
authorities. As expected, however, this curriculum takes on the individual teacher ' s priorities, views of
education, and style and is also subject to reform and criticism. An instructional curriculum that is actually
used in a classroom often varies from the planned curriculum, however, because of student responses or
other unforeseen circumstances.
• Finally, the experiential curriculum is the one perceived and experienced by students. What is
experienced differs from one student to the next because students have different backgrounds, motivations,
and levels of aspirations, to name just a few differences. For example, some students form similar purposes
for learning experiences to those held by their teachers, but other students hold very different purposes or
no purpose at all. Therefore, the experiential curriculum is the one internalized and made personal by
learners.
1.6. FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers. In this way they affect the
content and structure of the curriculum.
The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a society that their
children should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational
institutional are the proper way to impart these skills. The duty of teacher and school is to discipline the
young of the society and provide them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs, knowledge
and information of the society provide foundation in the formation of curriculum. The following are the main
foundations of curriculum
1. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum
2. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
3. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum
4. Economical Foundation of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum
Philosophy is important to all aspects of curriculum. It provides educators, particularly curriculum workers,
with a framework or base for organizing school and classroom activities. It helps them decide what school
materials to use. Almost all elements of curriculum are based on philosophy. As Goodlad (1979) points out,
"Philosophy is the guiding point in curriculum decision making and influences all subsequent decisions
regarding curriculum ".
Connection b/w Philosophy & Curriculum
Philosophy reflected by a school and its officials influences the goals and content, as well as the
organization, of its curriculum. Usually, schools reflect several philosophies, which add to the dynamics of
the curriculum within the school/ school system. It helps answer general questions:
• What are schools for? • What subjects are of value? • How should students learn the content? It also helps
us to answer precise tasks: • What textbooks to use? • How to use them? • What & how much of home-
work to assign? • How to test and use the results?
Although aspects of educational philosophy can be derived from the roots of idealism, realism,
pragmatism and existentialism, a common approach is to provide a pattern of educational philosophies
which derives from the major schools of philosophy some of which have been touched upon above. Here,
we shall be looking into the following four educational philosophies for their implications in the area of
curriculum development.
i) Perennialism
ii) Essentialism,
iii) Progressivism and
iv) Reconstructionism
A. Perennialism
o Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as
when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in schools. They believe that the ideas of
history's finest thinkers are meaningful even today.
o The study of these enduring ideas will enable students to appreciate learning for its own sake as well as
develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
Perennialist’s curriculum
Based on the beliefs of Perennialism, the curriculum should have following characteristics:
• The study of philosophy because it enables students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and
timeless in understanding the human condition.
• Teaching of religious values or ethics.

• While teaching ability to differentiate between rights and wrong is emphasized, so that students have
definite rules that they must follow.
B. Essentialism
Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics.
- It advocates instilling in students the “basics” or "essentials" of academic knowledge & character
development.
- Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues, schools should not try to radically
reshape society.
- Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to
become model citizens.
- Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific
experimentation. To teach important knowledge about the world, essentialists emphasized instruction in
natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy & comparative religion.
Characteristics of Essentialist Curriculum
- The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language &
literature.
- Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic
content.
- Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading & measurement. While learning
art and music (creativity) students are required to master a body of information & basic techniques, gradually
moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge.
C. Progressivism
Progressivism is derived from the older philosophy of pragmatism. It grew out of the larger progressivist
movement of the earlier 20th century in the United States. Believers of progressivism believe that since
reality is always changing truth is relative and not absolute. There is no reason to focus on a fixed, established
body of knowledge. This is in contrast to perennialism and essentialism. Supporters of progressivism also
are against a transmission style of teaching where the student passively receives information from a teacher,
which is also known as rote learning. Instead, students should be involved in problem-solving and the use of
the scientific method. John Dewey was probably one of the biggest supporters of progressivism.
Characteristics of Progressive
Curriculum It emphasizes the study of the natural & social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to
new: scientific, technological, & Social developments.

To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life.
Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum focuses
on the:
• Experiences’, ‘interests’, & ‘abilities of students.
• Integration of several different subject areas rather than confining to one discrete discipline at a time.
• exposing students to democratic values that recognize accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race,
cultural background, & Gender.
D. Reconstructionalism
A reconstructionist curriculum would include bringing students into their community. Ideally, students
would spend half of their time in the classroom and the other half outside of the classroom in different
settings. The curriculum would encourage students to directly apply what they are learning through social
activism, reform and change. As part of the reconstructionism model, the curriculum would use service
learning and discussion groups to teach, while also bringing the world into the classroom and the students
out into their community. The curriculum would also encourage students to be curious and inquire about the
world with the goal of having them re-invent it.
The reconstructionists seek a curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism, equality and futurism.
Critically examines the cultural heritage of a society as well as entire civilization.
Is not afraid to examine controversial issues.
Is deliberately committed to bring about social and constructive change.
Cultivate a future planning attitude that considers the realities of the world.
Enlists students and teachers in a definite program to enhance cultural renewal and interculturalism.
Strengthen control of the schools by and for goal-seeking interests of the overwhelming majority of
mankind.
2. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
Psychology is concerned with the basic question - how do people learn? The curriculum specialist, however,
asks how does psychology contribute to curriculum? Psychology has provided various kinds of answers for
the understanding of the teaching-learning process. As long as teaching and learning are important
considerations for curriculum specialist, psychology will be important as well.
Learning Theories and Curriculum For the sake of convergence we have classified major theories df learning
into the following groups:-

A. Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspect of stimulus - response and reinforcement scheme.
Education in the 20th
century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter is given
more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition are
common. For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many
are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system.
Broadly the behaviourists advocate that:-
• Behaviour is likely to be influenced by the conditions under which learning takes place;
• Attitudes and abilities of learners can change or improve over time through proper stimuli;
• Learning experiences can be designed and controlled to create desired learning; Selective
reinforcement is essential.
B. Cognitivist theories which view the learner in relationship with the total environment.
Contrary to behaviourists, the cognitive school of thought believes that learning is cognitive in nature. It
explains the phenomenon of human growth and development as cognitive, social, and psychological, and
physical Growth and development refer to changes in the structure and function of human characteristics.
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their thinking. The
basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:
• How do learners process and store information?
• How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
• How much information can they absorb?
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the
use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others.
C. Humanist psychology, which emphasizes attitudes and feelings, i.e. the affective domain of learning.
Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory. This
group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential. In this theory, curriculum
is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying
psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism
posits that learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They
are neither machines nor animals. A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes
human potential must be crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as
well.

3. Sociology and Curriculum
There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists
within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other
units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as
communities.
Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to.
But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the world
as well. Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary.
A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the
internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations.
However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and preserves
its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility
to ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.
4. Economical Foundations
It focuses on:
• Job or market-oriented curriculum
• Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the curriculum. The
economic condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country, because the stakeholder of
the education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to build their economy and the people
have better jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situations, the curriculum become job or
market oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is
the demands of the time. Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to other countries
for jobs
Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum development process.
o The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one can’t achieve
the outcome of a good curriculum.
o The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard to train
the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the establishment of
training institutions for teachers and support staff.

o The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because without proper com-
puter labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer education curriculum all over the country.
1.7 CONCEPT AND PROCESS OF INSTRUCTION
Instructional design can be defined as the creation of instructional materials, modules or lessons. The
instructional design process consists of determining the needs of the learners, defining the end goals and
objectives of instruction, designing and planning assessment tasks, and designing teaching and learning
activities to ensure the quality of instruction.
1.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Technical Approach Those who view curriculum and instruction as separate but related entities typically
hold an objective interpretation of reality that is demonstrated in a technical approach to the curriculum
processes. The processes are expected to be rational and systematic. The technical approach is the traditional
way of developing curricula that focus on subject matter or subject matter standards. Typically, a committee
of nonteaching staff (administrators and sometimes curriculum specialists or consultants), teachers, and
community members revises a curriculum for a school.

After the curriculum is planned, teachers are responsible for implementing it in their teaching situations.
Nothing within the technical approach itself prevents teachers from assuming important roles in any of the
curriculum processes. Teachers do assume major responsibilities in school-based approaches, where these
types of curricula are used. Indeed, this text takes the position that teachers should be proactive in curriculum
processes.
Nontechnical Approach Other educators use a nontechnical approach to curriculum processes because
they do not see curriculum and instruction as readily separable entities. Educators with a subjective
interpretation of reality favour this approach because it allows them to interact with students and content to
develop their own realities. As used here, the nontechnical approach relies heavily on teachers as the major
source of curriculum knowledge because they know their students and teaching contexts. They also know
why the curriculum needs revision.
A nontechnical approach is often used when the major source of curriculum content is the needs and interests
of students or needs of society and culture. Particularly with these sources, curriculum developers do not
state their intended learning outcomes at the outset (Klein, 1991b), because what students are expected to
learn is not easily predicted.

Chapter 1. Curriculum Design and Instructions

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Chapter 1. Curriculum Design and Instructions