This document discusses aggregate demand, aggregate supply, and the AD-AS model. It defines aggregate demand as the combination of price level and output where goods and money markets are in equilibrium. The AD curve slopes downward as higher prices reduce demand. Aggregate supply shows the relationship between price level and output supplied in the short run, with the curve sloping upward, and a vertical line in the long run. The AD-AS model shows equilibrium of the two curves at a price level and output. Shifts in the curves can cause inflation or recession.
Supply-side policies aim to improve the productive potential of an economy through various market-led and state intervention approaches. Market-led policies focus on making markets more competitive through deregulation and tax cuts, while state intervention aims to overcome market failures. The objectives of supply-side policies include improving skills, productivity, investment, and competitiveness. Successful supply-side policies could achieve sustained low inflation growth and reduce unemployment. However, the effects of supply-side policies can take a long time to materialize and not all policies effectively pick winners. Evaluating their impact also requires considering demand-side conditions and issues like inequality and sustainability.
Businesses have both fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs remain the same regardless of production levels, such as rent expenses. Variable costs change based on production, such as materials. Total costs are the sum of fixed and variable costs. Average cost is calculated by dividing total costs by units produced to determine per unit costs. Graphs can show how total costs and average costs change as production increases or decreases.
This document discusses various pricing strategies used by companies, including:
1. Cost plus pricing, where a company adds a markup percentage to their average costs to determine price.
2. Marginal cost pricing, where price is based on variable costs to gain market share when competition is high.
3. Penetration pricing, used by new entrants to charge very low initial prices.
4. Product life cycle pricing, where prices change depending on the stage of introduction, growth, maturity, or decline.
The document provides an overview of respiratory disorders and diseases. It discusses diagnostic tests for respiratory conditions like spirometry and blood gas tests. Common respiratory diseases covered include upper respiratory infections like the common cold, sinusitis, pneumonia, lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Specific conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis are also examined, outlining their pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.
1. The document discusses concepts of marginal utility analysis including the basic assumptions, laws, and applications.
2. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that the marginal utility of a good decreases with each additional unit consumed.
3. The law of equi-marginal utility holds that rational consumers will allocate their budget in a way that equalizes the marginal utility per dollar across different goods.
4. Marginal utility analysis can help explain consumer demand and behavior, price determination, and other economic concepts.
Maximum & Minimum prices content slideshow. Designed for the Economic A level qualification. Can be used in revision and in class.
Subtopics
Maximum Prices
Minimum Prices
Pros & Cons of Maximum & Minimum Prices
Limitations of Maximum & Minimum Prices
Alternatives to Maximum & Minimum Prices
This document discusses aggregate demand, aggregate supply, and the AD-AS model. It defines aggregate demand as the combination of price level and output where goods and money markets are in equilibrium. The AD curve slopes downward as higher prices reduce demand. Aggregate supply shows the relationship between price level and output supplied in the short run, with the curve sloping upward, and a vertical line in the long run. The AD-AS model shows equilibrium of the two curves at a price level and output. Shifts in the curves can cause inflation or recession.
Supply-side policies aim to improve the productive potential of an economy through various market-led and state intervention approaches. Market-led policies focus on making markets more competitive through deregulation and tax cuts, while state intervention aims to overcome market failures. The objectives of supply-side policies include improving skills, productivity, investment, and competitiveness. Successful supply-side policies could achieve sustained low inflation growth and reduce unemployment. However, the effects of supply-side policies can take a long time to materialize and not all policies effectively pick winners. Evaluating their impact also requires considering demand-side conditions and issues like inequality and sustainability.
Businesses have both fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs remain the same regardless of production levels, such as rent expenses. Variable costs change based on production, such as materials. Total costs are the sum of fixed and variable costs. Average cost is calculated by dividing total costs by units produced to determine per unit costs. Graphs can show how total costs and average costs change as production increases or decreases.
This document discusses various pricing strategies used by companies, including:
1. Cost plus pricing, where a company adds a markup percentage to their average costs to determine price.
2. Marginal cost pricing, where price is based on variable costs to gain market share when competition is high.
3. Penetration pricing, used by new entrants to charge very low initial prices.
4. Product life cycle pricing, where prices change depending on the stage of introduction, growth, maturity, or decline.
The document provides an overview of respiratory disorders and diseases. It discusses diagnostic tests for respiratory conditions like spirometry and blood gas tests. Common respiratory diseases covered include upper respiratory infections like the common cold, sinusitis, pneumonia, lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Specific conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis are also examined, outlining their pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.
1. The document discusses concepts of marginal utility analysis including the basic assumptions, laws, and applications.
2. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that the marginal utility of a good decreases with each additional unit consumed.
3. The law of equi-marginal utility holds that rational consumers will allocate their budget in a way that equalizes the marginal utility per dollar across different goods.
4. Marginal utility analysis can help explain consumer demand and behavior, price determination, and other economic concepts.
Maximum & Minimum prices content slideshow. Designed for the Economic A level qualification. Can be used in revision and in class.
Subtopics
Maximum Prices
Minimum Prices
Pros & Cons of Maximum & Minimum Prices
Limitations of Maximum & Minimum Prices
Alternatives to Maximum & Minimum Prices
This ppt describe the Definition of TP with introduction to Transfer pricing and Objectives with types of TP addressed.
Subscribe to Vision Academy YouTube Channel
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
1) Indirect taxes are imposed on expenditures and raise firms' costs, shifting the supply curve left. The tax amount is the vertical difference between the original and new supply curves.
2) Subsidies have the opposite effect of taxes by shifting the supply curve downward, lowering prices. This increases producer revenue and consumer expenditure.
3) Price controls set maximum or minimum prices, creating shortages or surpluses. Governments intervene by subsidizing production, buying excess supply, or restricting imports to maintain the control. However, this can lead to inefficiency if firms are not incentivized to reduce costs.
Unit III discusses cost and revenue concepts. There are several types of costs including fixed costs that do not vary with output, variable costs that depend on output, average costs that are total costs divided by units of output, and marginal costs which are the change in total costs from producing one additional unit of output. Revenue refers to the value that customers place on a firm's products or services. A cost function describes the relationship between a firm's total costs and its level of output. Key determinants of a firm's costs include input prices, size of plant, rate of output, and efficiency.
The foreign exchange market allows currencies to be traded and provides liquidity for international trade and investment. It operates 24/5 with many factors influencing exchange rates. The equilibrium exchange rate balances supply and demand for currencies, while real exchange rates account for inflation differences between countries. Purchasing power parity estimates the exchange rate at which currencies would buy the same goods.
Budgets are financial plans that set targets for a business's revenues and costs over a given period. Managers are responsible for costs within their budgets and must take action if actual spending differs significantly. Variances occur when actual figures differ from budgets, and can be favorable or adverse. While budgets help control costs and monitor performance, they can also lead to inflexibility and departmental rivalry if not implemented carefully.
This document discusses macroeconomic concepts related to monetary policy, fiscal policy, and their influence on aggregate demand. It covers topics such as:
- How monetary policy influences aggregate demand through interest rate changes affecting consumption, investment, and net exports.
- How fiscal policy influences aggregate demand through changes in government spending and taxes, which can have multiplier or crowding out effects on the economy.
- Arguments for and against active use of policy tools to stabilize the economy in response to fluctuations in aggregate demand. The document also discusses automatic stabilizers as a less active alternative.
This document discusses various pricing strategies that companies can use. It defines pricing as the element of the marketing mix that generates revenue. The document then outlines different factors companies should consider when setting prices, such as costs, competition, objectives. It provides examples of several common pricing strategies such as penetration pricing, skimming pricing, competition pricing, product line pricing, bundle pricing, premium pricing, optional pricing, cost-plus pricing, cost-based pricing, and value-based pricing.
This document discusses several key topics related to measuring economic activity and growth:
1. Total output in an economy (gross domestic product or GDP) can be measured in three equivalent ways: by total output, total income, or total expenditure in the economy.
2. GDP is used to measure the total value of goods and services produced, but nominal GDP does not account for inflation - real GDP adjusts for inflation to show the actual growth in output.
3. Economic growth is defined as the increase in real GDP from one period to the next. Long-term growth comes from expanding an economy's productive potential through factors like new resources, technology, education, and efficient allocation of resources.
4.
The document discusses different types of costs including: direct costs, indirect costs, product costs, period costs, prime costs, conversion costs, manufacturing costs, planned costs, actual costs, controllable costs, uncontrollable costs, and opportunity costs. It also discusses cost behavior and how costs are classified for inventory valuation, income determination, decision making, and planning/control. Manufacturing costs include direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead. Period costs are non-manufacturing like selling and administrative costs.
Market structure identifies how competitive a market is based on factors like the number of firms, degree of product differentiation, barriers to entry, and firms' pricing power. Markets range from perfect competition, where many small firms have no pricing power and entry is easy, to monopoly, where a single firm controls the entire market. Between these extremes are monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and duopoly, where firms have some degree of pricing power and influence over each other. The model used depends on the characteristics of the specific industry.
Cross price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the demand for good X to a change in the price of a related good Y. It can be positive for substitutes, where a rise in the price of one good increases demand for the other, or negative for complements, where a fall in the price of one good increases demand for the other. The closer the relationship between the two goods, the higher the coefficient of cross price elasticity.
The document discusses various concepts related to elasticity of demand, including:
1) It emphasizes the importance of drawing diagrams correctly when explaining elasticity, ensuring demand and supply curves are the right way round and changes are well explained.
2) It outlines factors that affect price elasticity of demand, including whether a product is a necessity or luxury, availability of substitutes, consumer income, brand loyalty, and habits.
3) It discusses peak and off-peak demand, showing how suppliers can charge higher prices during peak times by shifting the demand curve rightwards.
4) It provides the formula for calculating cross-price elasticity of demand and works through an example of estimating changes in the demand
This document provides an overview of absorption costing and marginal costing. Absorption costing treats all manufacturing costs, including fixed costs, as product costs. Marginal costing treats only variable manufacturing costs as product costs and regards fixed costs as period costs. The document also discusses the treatment of fixed overheads, valuation of closing stock, and reported profit under each method. It then covers the concepts of break-even analysis including calculation of break-even point, target profit, margin of safety, and the impact of changes in cost and revenue components. The limitations of break-even analysis are also summarized.
Aggregate Demand, Aggregate Supply, and InflationNoel Buensuceso
This document discusses aggregate demand, aggregate supply, and inflation. It defines aggregate demand and supply as the total demand and supply in the economy. The aggregate demand curve shows a negative relationship between output and price level, while the aggregate supply curve shows the relationship between output and price level. The equilibrium price level is where the aggregate demand and supply curves intersect. Inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the overall price level over time and is caused by an expansion of the money supply. There are two types of inflation: demand-pull inflation initiated by increased aggregate demand and cost-push inflation caused by increased costs. Cost shocks can lead to stagflation, where output falls as prices rise. Inflationary expectations
The document discusses several respiratory disorders including asthma, pneumonia, and emphysema. It provides details on the causes, symptoms, and treatments for each. Asthma is a chronic lung disease involving inflammation and constriction of the airways. It can be controlled but not cured through medication and avoiding triggers. Pneumonia is the inflammation of lung tissues caused by bacteria, viruses, or irritants. It poses high risks for elderly, immunosuppressed, and smokers. Emphysema is a lung disease classified as COPD where lung tissue is destroyed, causing shortness of breath. Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of emphysema.
The document discusses the relationship between marginal cost, average total cost, and average variable cost. It states that marginal cost curves always intersect average cost curves at the minimum point. When marginal cost exceeds average cost, average cost is rising. When marginal cost is less than average cost, average cost is falling. Marginal cost also indicates whether average variable cost is rising or falling in the same way.
This ppt describe the Definition of TP with introduction to Transfer pricing and Objectives with types of TP addressed.
Subscribe to Vision Academy YouTube Channel
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
1) Indirect taxes are imposed on expenditures and raise firms' costs, shifting the supply curve left. The tax amount is the vertical difference between the original and new supply curves.
2) Subsidies have the opposite effect of taxes by shifting the supply curve downward, lowering prices. This increases producer revenue and consumer expenditure.
3) Price controls set maximum or minimum prices, creating shortages or surpluses. Governments intervene by subsidizing production, buying excess supply, or restricting imports to maintain the control. However, this can lead to inefficiency if firms are not incentivized to reduce costs.
Unit III discusses cost and revenue concepts. There are several types of costs including fixed costs that do not vary with output, variable costs that depend on output, average costs that are total costs divided by units of output, and marginal costs which are the change in total costs from producing one additional unit of output. Revenue refers to the value that customers place on a firm's products or services. A cost function describes the relationship between a firm's total costs and its level of output. Key determinants of a firm's costs include input prices, size of plant, rate of output, and efficiency.
The foreign exchange market allows currencies to be traded and provides liquidity for international trade and investment. It operates 24/5 with many factors influencing exchange rates. The equilibrium exchange rate balances supply and demand for currencies, while real exchange rates account for inflation differences between countries. Purchasing power parity estimates the exchange rate at which currencies would buy the same goods.
Budgets are financial plans that set targets for a business's revenues and costs over a given period. Managers are responsible for costs within their budgets and must take action if actual spending differs significantly. Variances occur when actual figures differ from budgets, and can be favorable or adverse. While budgets help control costs and monitor performance, they can also lead to inflexibility and departmental rivalry if not implemented carefully.
This document discusses macroeconomic concepts related to monetary policy, fiscal policy, and their influence on aggregate demand. It covers topics such as:
- How monetary policy influences aggregate demand through interest rate changes affecting consumption, investment, and net exports.
- How fiscal policy influences aggregate demand through changes in government spending and taxes, which can have multiplier or crowding out effects on the economy.
- Arguments for and against active use of policy tools to stabilize the economy in response to fluctuations in aggregate demand. The document also discusses automatic stabilizers as a less active alternative.
This document discusses various pricing strategies that companies can use. It defines pricing as the element of the marketing mix that generates revenue. The document then outlines different factors companies should consider when setting prices, such as costs, competition, objectives. It provides examples of several common pricing strategies such as penetration pricing, skimming pricing, competition pricing, product line pricing, bundle pricing, premium pricing, optional pricing, cost-plus pricing, cost-based pricing, and value-based pricing.
This document discusses several key topics related to measuring economic activity and growth:
1. Total output in an economy (gross domestic product or GDP) can be measured in three equivalent ways: by total output, total income, or total expenditure in the economy.
2. GDP is used to measure the total value of goods and services produced, but nominal GDP does not account for inflation - real GDP adjusts for inflation to show the actual growth in output.
3. Economic growth is defined as the increase in real GDP from one period to the next. Long-term growth comes from expanding an economy's productive potential through factors like new resources, technology, education, and efficient allocation of resources.
4.
The document discusses different types of costs including: direct costs, indirect costs, product costs, period costs, prime costs, conversion costs, manufacturing costs, planned costs, actual costs, controllable costs, uncontrollable costs, and opportunity costs. It also discusses cost behavior and how costs are classified for inventory valuation, income determination, decision making, and planning/control. Manufacturing costs include direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead. Period costs are non-manufacturing like selling and administrative costs.
Market structure identifies how competitive a market is based on factors like the number of firms, degree of product differentiation, barriers to entry, and firms' pricing power. Markets range from perfect competition, where many small firms have no pricing power and entry is easy, to monopoly, where a single firm controls the entire market. Between these extremes are monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and duopoly, where firms have some degree of pricing power and influence over each other. The model used depends on the characteristics of the specific industry.
Cross price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the demand for good X to a change in the price of a related good Y. It can be positive for substitutes, where a rise in the price of one good increases demand for the other, or negative for complements, where a fall in the price of one good increases demand for the other. The closer the relationship between the two goods, the higher the coefficient of cross price elasticity.
The document discusses various concepts related to elasticity of demand, including:
1) It emphasizes the importance of drawing diagrams correctly when explaining elasticity, ensuring demand and supply curves are the right way round and changes are well explained.
2) It outlines factors that affect price elasticity of demand, including whether a product is a necessity or luxury, availability of substitutes, consumer income, brand loyalty, and habits.
3) It discusses peak and off-peak demand, showing how suppliers can charge higher prices during peak times by shifting the demand curve rightwards.
4) It provides the formula for calculating cross-price elasticity of demand and works through an example of estimating changes in the demand
This document provides an overview of absorption costing and marginal costing. Absorption costing treats all manufacturing costs, including fixed costs, as product costs. Marginal costing treats only variable manufacturing costs as product costs and regards fixed costs as period costs. The document also discusses the treatment of fixed overheads, valuation of closing stock, and reported profit under each method. It then covers the concepts of break-even analysis including calculation of break-even point, target profit, margin of safety, and the impact of changes in cost and revenue components. The limitations of break-even analysis are also summarized.
Aggregate Demand, Aggregate Supply, and InflationNoel Buensuceso
This document discusses aggregate demand, aggregate supply, and inflation. It defines aggregate demand and supply as the total demand and supply in the economy. The aggregate demand curve shows a negative relationship between output and price level, while the aggregate supply curve shows the relationship between output and price level. The equilibrium price level is where the aggregate demand and supply curves intersect. Inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the overall price level over time and is caused by an expansion of the money supply. There are two types of inflation: demand-pull inflation initiated by increased aggregate demand and cost-push inflation caused by increased costs. Cost shocks can lead to stagflation, where output falls as prices rise. Inflationary expectations
The document discusses several respiratory disorders including asthma, pneumonia, and emphysema. It provides details on the causes, symptoms, and treatments for each. Asthma is a chronic lung disease involving inflammation and constriction of the airways. It can be controlled but not cured through medication and avoiding triggers. Pneumonia is the inflammation of lung tissues caused by bacteria, viruses, or irritants. It poses high risks for elderly, immunosuppressed, and smokers. Emphysema is a lung disease classified as COPD where lung tissue is destroyed, causing shortness of breath. Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of emphysema.
The document discusses the relationship between marginal cost, average total cost, and average variable cost. It states that marginal cost curves always intersect average cost curves at the minimum point. When marginal cost exceeds average cost, average cost is rising. When marginal cost is less than average cost, average cost is falling. Marginal cost also indicates whether average variable cost is rising or falling in the same way.
Vision 2050 Toward a society overwelmingly served by railGruppo CLAS
Relazione presentata nel corso della XVII Riunione Scientifica della Società Italiana di Economia dei Trasporti e della Logistica (SIET) "Nuovi sviluppi dell’economia dei trasporti: alla ricerca di un equilibrio tra crescita economica, sostenibilità ambientale e inclusività sociale".
The White Paper on the future of mobility assigns a relevant role to sustainable railway transport. The desirable future scenario is supposed to deliver an economically efficient and environmentally friendly multi modal transport system, with electrified rail playing a central role. The goal is to significantly improve European quality of life. The White Paper sets ambitious targets in term of shift to rail: overall more than 50% of passenger and freight traffic will have to be operated by electrified rail.
Such a vision is very demanding and challenging both under the technological and the economical points of view. The study identifies the targets for freight and passengers to be met in order to achieve the goals set by the White Paper of a society overwhelmingly served by electrified rail, then selects the technical, organisational and technological measures needed to be implemented in order to meet those targets and finally evaluates the strategy by means of a Cost Benefit Analysis and an Impact Assessment.
The 2050 mobility vision imagined in the White Paper requires an increase in rail passenger transport volume by 2.8 fold, from 404 bPKm in 2010 to 1.147 bPKm in 2050, with a crucial role played by the development of the High Speed Rail concept whose increase in envisaged by 4.6 fold, and an in crease in rail freight transport volume by 4 fold, from 390 btKm in 2010 to 1.560 bPKm in 2050.
The study identifies co-modal solutions and measures that are able to cover the biggest part of the quantitative challenge of the vision by aiming at the most important objectives for freight, passenger and infrastructure. All tools and solutions enhance rail services in terms of quality, capacity and efficiency to realise a shift to rail and to make the railway system capable of this shift.
The study continue with a Cost Benefit Analysis aiming at evaluating under a public and socially comprehensive point of view the economical feasibility and convenience of the solutions implementation and of the vision. The results are hugely positive and the main driver of effectiveness results to be the increase in efficiency of the rail system envisaged within 2050. Finally, the Impact Assessment evaluates the expected impacts of the identified measures and solutions on the 2050 mobility vision.
Il presente lavoro, sviluppato grazie alla collaborazione con la società di investimento Venice Shipping and Logistics, mira ad analizzare e valutare l’arbitraggio economico-finanziario tra l’investimento in una nave convenzionale e l’investimento in una ECO-Ship, nel segmento delle navi product tanker Medium Range 2. E’ stata inoltre analizzata l’opportunità di investimento sul mercato secondario in una nave convenzionale di 5 anni.
La prima fase dell’elaborato è caratterizzata da uno studio dello scenario attuale, attraverso l’analisi dei dati di mercato, relativamente all’andamento del prezzo dei noli, bunker e bilanciamento domanda e offerta.
Nella seconda parte, attraverso un’attenta valutazione economico-finanziaria degli investimenti, sono state messe a confronto una nave eco ed una convenzionale, second-hand, di cinque anni. L’analisi di sensitivity ha evidenziato valori di IRR (tasso interno di rendimento) fortemente diversi, in base allo share armatore-noleggiatore, ed alla velocità in nodi della nave.
Maccherozzi Rudy - Car Sharing Elettrico: Modellazione e OttimizzazioneRudy Maccherozzi
Descrizione di un sistema innovativo di Car Sharing di tipo "One Way" mediante l'utilizzo di veicoli elettrici e lo studio della localizzazione ottimale dei veicoli
L’International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems impedisce, attraverso un’apposita normativa, l’utilizzo su carena di pitture antivegetative contenenti sostanze agenti come biocidi. La Convenzione è entrata in vigore il 17 settembre 2008 e la nostra analisi è rivolta a quei prodotti su base siliconica che prevedono l’aggiunta di polimeri super assorbenti e non solubili in acqua, che saranno testati sulla carena di una petroliera della compagnia, in occasione dei prossimi lavori di bacino.
L’inquinamento dovuto all’introduzione di specie marine invasive tramite l’acqua di zavorra, è una delle maggiori minacce per i mari. Per questo motivo l’IMO ha introdotto nel 2004 la normativa BWM, che entrerà in vigore con diverse scadenze, scandite per navi nuove ed esistenti. La scelta della migliore soluzione, in termini di impianto, dipende da svariati parametri che devono tener conto sia dell’aspetto tecnico, che economico.
The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships will prohibit the use of harmful organ tins in anti-fouling paints used on ships. The convention entered into force on 17 September 2008 and our analysis it’s about a product based on patented fluoropolymer foul release technology, that will be tested on a tanker’s hull of the company during the next dry docking. The technology provides a smooth, low-energy surface to which fouling organisms either cannot attach, or to which they adhere only loosely and can therefore be easily removed.
Pollution due to the introduction of marine invasive species through ballast water of the vessels has been identified as one of the greatest treats for seas. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted in February, 2004. The Convention will be adopted with different deadlines scheduled for new and existing ships, provides for the discharge parameters of the BW. Choosing the best solution depends on economic and technical parameters.
Algoritmi e Programmazione Avanzata - Ordinamento e ricorsioneSergio Porcu
Argomenti trattati:
- calcolo di una potenza (di sistema, iterativo e ricorsivo)
- heapsort
- insertion sort
- merge sort
- quicksort
- otto regine
- dama cinese
- torre di Hanoi
- tour del cavaliere
- anagrammmi
- MCD secondo Euclide
Algoritmi e Programmazione Avanzata - Esercizi propedeuticiSergio Porcu
Argomenti trattati:
- inserimento di un elemento in un vettore
- visualizzazione di un numero binario di n bit
- inserzione in lista ordinata
- fusione di array
- simulazione del gioco della vita
This document contains 6 SQL queries that use the TO_CHAR function to format different parts of the current date (returned by SYSDATE) according to the Italian localization settings, including the abbreviated day name, day number, month name, and 4-digit year, and a final query that concatenates these date elements into a single Italian-formatted date string.
1. Esercizio 2.3
Sergio PORCU 1
Esercizio 2.3 – Calcolo del costo del prodotto
Il Centro Velico Laser (CVL) tiene corsi di vela di due distinti livelli: di base (B) ed avanzato
(A). I corsi sono quindicinali ed ogni anno ne vengono organizzati 10 per ogni livello. Al corso
di base partecipano 20 persone per corso, a quello avanzato 10. I costi che il CVL deve
sostenere ogni anno sono i seguenti:
Vitto e alloggio (per allievo) 30.000 L./giorno
Ammortamento barche (Corso base) 40.000.000 L./anno
Ammortamento barche (Corso avanzato) 30.000.000 L./anno
Costi armamento barche (vele, riparazioni, etc.) 25.000.000 L./anno
Istruttori 2.000.000 per corso quindicinale
Ammortamento sede corso 30.000.000 L./anno
Addetti controllo sicurezza navigazione 40.000.000 L./anno
Per quanto riguarda la ripartizione dei costi si deve tenere presente che:
• i costi di armamento barche devono essere ripartiti in misura uguale fra i due livelli;
• il costo istruttori si riferisce al singolo corso quindicinale ed è lo stesso per i due livelli;
• i costi relativi alla sicurezza sono per il 60% da attribuire al corso di base e per il 40%
a quello avanzato;
• l’ammortamento della sede deve essere ripartito tenendo presente che i due corsi
hanno a disposizione la stessa superficie per i propri alloggi.
Sulla base di tali informazioni si risponda alle seguenti domande:
a) Si calcoli il costo sostenuto dal CVL per ciascun allievo dei due livelli (si supponga che
durante l’anno si verifichi sempre il tutto esaurito nei corsi);
b) per quanto riguarda il solo corso di base, si calcoli il numero di allievi che è necessario
si iscrivano in un anno, pagando ciascuno 1,2 ML., per ottenere un profitto di 15 ML.
Soluzione:
a)
• Costo per allievo per Prod. A
Vitto e alloggio 30.000 x 15 = 450.000
Ammortamento barche (30.000.000/10)/10 = 300.000
Costi armamento barche [(25.000.000/2)/10]/10 = 125.000
Istruttori 2.000.000/10 = 200.000
Ammortamento sede corso [(30.000.000/2)/10]/10 = 150.000
Addetti controllo sicurezza [(40.000.000 x 0.4)/10]/10 = 160.000
Totale 1.385.000
• Costo per allievo per Prod. B
Vitto e alloggio 30.000 x 15 = 450.000
Ammortamento barche (40.000.000/10)/20 = 200.000
Costi armamento barche [(25.000.000/2)/10]/20 = 62.500
Istruttori 2.000.000/20 = 100.000
Ammortamento sede corso [(30.000.000/2)/10]/20 = 75.000
Addetti controllo sicurezza [(40.000.000 x 0.6)/10]/20 = 120.000
Totale 1.007.500
b)
• Costi fissi
Ammortamento barche 40.000.000
Armamento 12.500.000
Istruttori 20.000.000
Sicurezza 24.000.000
Ammortamento sede corso 15.000.000
Totale 111.500.000
3. Esercizio 2.19
Sergio PORCU 1
Esercizio 2.19 – Break-even point ed analisi Make or Buy
La Ciuf Ciuf S.p.A. possiede una linea ferroviaria che collega i paesi di Piazza Torre e Città
Castello, senza fermate intermedie. La linea funziona tutti i giorni del mese. Ogni giorno vi
sono due treni che coprono il percorso fra le due città nelle opposte direzioni. Dalle stazioni
delle due città partono ogni giorno tre corse, alle 8.00, alle 13.00 ed alle 18.00. Nella corsa
delle 13.00 il numero di passeggeri trasportato è la metà di quelli delle altre corse. I costi
totali (in milioni) che la Ciuf Ciuf sostiene annualmente sono i seguenti:
• costo del lavoro 130
di cui:
macchinisti 60
personale viaggiante 40
personale impiegatizio 30
• energia motrice 60
• manutenzione rete 60
• costi vari 14
• ammortamenti rete 120
• ammortamenti treni 60
• costi di pulizia (giornalieri) 0.1 per ogni corsa
1. Si caloli il numero medio di passeggeri che deve essere trasportato giornalmente per
ogni singola corsa perché la Ciuf Ciuf possa conseguire un utile annuo di 60 milioni (si
utilizzi un mese di 30 giorni nei calcoli), supponendo che il prezzo del biglietto per un
viaggio di sola andata sia di L. 10.000.
2. Si supponga che il numero di passeggeri delle singole corse sia il seguente:
Corsa Numero passeggeri
ore 8.00 50
ore 13.30 25
ore 18.30 50
Il responsabile del controllo di gestione della Ciuf Ciuf S.p.A., ingegnere Astori, deve
valutare l’alternativa di sostituire le due corse delle 13.00 con una linea di autobus.
All’ingegnere Astori arriva una offerta della Corriere S.a.s. di svolgere tale servizio ad un
prezzo di 7.5 milioni/mese. Il prezzo del biglietto praticato dalla Ciuf Ciuf per il viaggio in
corriera sarebbe di L. 8.000. L’ingengere Astori ritiene che in questo modo si potrebbe
ottenere le seguenti riduzioni di costo:
• costo macchinisti riduzione del 10%
• costo personale viaggiante riduzione del 10%
• energia motrice riduzione del 5%
• manutenzione rete riduzione del 20%
• ammortamenti treni riduzione del 10%
Ritenete che l’ingegnere Astori debba accettare l’offerta della Corriere S.a.s.?
Soluzione:
Punto 1)
Ricavi annui totali = [4 x p + 2 x (p / 2)] x 10.000 x 30 x 12 = 18.000.000 ⋅ p / anno
Costi totali annui = (130.000.000 + 60.000.000 + 60.000.000 + 14.000.000 + 120.000.000 +
60.000.000 + 100.000 x 3 x 2 x 30 x 12) = 660.000.000
Occorre che Ricavi annui totali – Costi annui totali = 60.000.000; in questo modo otteniamo il
valore di p (ossia del numero medio giornaliero dei passeggeri da trasportare in una singola
corsa). Infatti p vale 40 che, ripartito tra i vari tipi di viaggio, consente di stabilire il numero di
passeggeri:
• 40 per le corse delle 8.00 e delle 18.00;
4. Esercizio 2.19
Sergio PORCU 2
• 20 per le corse delle 13.00.
Punto 2)
MAKE
Totale giornaliero dei passeggeri = 50 + 25 + 50 = 250
Ricavi annui = 250 x 10.000 x 360 = 900.000.000
Costo totale annuo = 660.000.000
Utile MAKE= 900.000.000 – 660.000.000 = 240.000.000
BUY
Costi totali annui
• macchinisti 60.000.000 x (1 – 0.1) = 54.000.000
• personale viaggiante 40.000.000 x (1 – 0.1) = 36.000.000
• personale impiegatizio 30.000.000
• energia motrice 60.000.000 x (1 – 0.5) = 57.000.000
• manutenzione rete 60.000.000 x (1 – 0.2) = 48.000.000
• costi vari 14.000.000
• ammortamenti rete 120.000.000
• ammortamenti treni 60.000.000 x (1 – 0.1) = 54.000.000
• costi di pulizia 100.000 x 4 x 30 x 12 = 144.000.000
Totale costi annui 557.000.000
Costo annuo servizio Corriere S.a.s. 7.500.000 x 12 = 90.000.000
Totale costi annui Buy 647.000.000
Ricavi annui = [(10.000 x 200) + (8.000 x 50)] x 360 = 864.000.000
Utile BUY = 864.000.000 – 647.000.000 = 217.000.000
Commenti finali: non conviene accettare l’offerta della Corriere S.p.A. in quanto
Utile MAKE > Utile BUY.
5. Esercizio 2.20
Sergio PORCU 1
Esercizio 2.20 – Break-even point
La compagnia Candalf Airlines collega tre volte la settimana Napoli con Verona e viceversa
con voli di linea. I costi settimanali della compagnia sono i seguenti:
• Ammortamento 10.000 Euro
• Spese generali 7.000 Euro
• Assicurazione 3.000 Euro
• Carburante 10 Euro/km
• Manutenzione 3 Euro/km
• Spese per vitto 20 Euro/passeggero
L’equipaggio, assunto per tutto l’anno, costa complessivamente 312.000 Euro annue.
Sapendo che la distanza tra Napoli e Verona, in linea d’aria, è di 600 km e che il prezzo del
biglietto di una tratta (Napoli-Verona o viceversa) è di 125 Euro:
1) Calcolare il numero medio di passeggeri per ciascun viaggio che consente all’impresa di
ottenere il break-even.
2) L’affollamento del traffico aereo ha spinto le autorità a vietare alle compagnie private la
rotta abituale tra Verona e Napoli. Vi è la possibilità di seguire una rotta più lunga.
Nell’ipotesi che il numero medio di passeggeri sia pari a 135 per viaggio, quale dovrebbe
essere il numero massimo di chilometri aggiuntivi che l’impresa può accettare per
ottenere un margine operativo settimanale pari ad almeno 3.000 Euro?
Soluzione:
1)
Costi totali settimanali
Ammortamento 10000
Spese generali 7000
Assicurazione 3000
Carburante (10 x 3 x 2 x 600) = 36000
Manutenzione (3 x 3 x 2 x 600) = 10800
Spese per vitto ?
Equipaggio (312000/52) = 6000
Totale 72800
Per avere break-even occorre che:
125 ⋅ X = (72.800 / 6) + 20 ⋅ X
quindi:
X = 72.800 / (6 ⋅ 105) ≅ 116 passeggeri
2)
Occorre che R – C = 3.000
In questo caso Ricavi settimanali – Costi fissi – Costi variabili = 3.000,
o anche Ricavi settimanali – 3.000 = Costi fissi + Costi variabili
quindi:
(125 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2) ⋅ 135 – 3.000 = (10.000 + 7.000 + 3.000) + (10 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ X) + (3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ X) + (20 ⋅ 135 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2)
98.250 = 20.000 + 16.200 + 60 ⋅ X + 18 ⋅ X + 6.000
56.050 = 78 ⋅ X → X = 718.6 km
∆ = 718.6 – 600 = 118.6 km
La Candalf Airlines potrà perciò accettare solamente un allungamento del percorso pari a
118,6 km.
6. Esame 14/7/2001
Sergio PORCU 1
Esame 14/7/2001 – Make or Buy
Una società produce il prodotto XX3A.1 con le seguenti caratteristiche:
Costi unitari: MP 5.000
MDO 3.000
Energia 500
Costi fissi: OH 5 Ml (specifici al 30%)
Commerciale 3.5 Ml
Prezzo di vendita 13.300
Ogni pezzo viene inoltre collaudato al termine della lavorazione, con un ulteriore costo di 800
per pezzo. Il livello di produzione è definito in maniera tale da ottenere un profitto pari al 25%
del fatturato di XX3A.1. Lo stesso prodotto (in quantità e tipologia) potrebbe essere
acquistato da un fornitore al prezzo di 8000, con un aggravio del 25% dei costi di collaudo.
Cosa consigliereste al management?
Dopo 6 mesi il prezzo di vendita scende a 12.300: quale sarebbe il vostro consiglio
(motivato)?
Soluzione:
Se indichiamo con X il volume di produzione, deve risultare la seguente equazione:
PV ⋅ X ⋅ PICF = CF + CV ⋅ X
ossia
PV ⋅ X ⋅ PICF – CV ⋅ X = CF
e, in via definitiva,
X = CF / [(PV ⋅ PICF) – CV]
con
• PV prezzo di vendita;
• CF costi fissi;
• CV costi variabili;
• PICF percentuale di incidenza dei costi sul profitto.
Nel nostro caso la percentuale di incidenza dei costi sul profitto risulta essere 100% - 25% =
75% (0.75), i costi fissi totali ammontano a 5.000.000 + 3.500.000 = 8.500.000 mentre i costi
variabili unitari ammontano a 5.000 + 3.000 + 500 + 800 = 9.300. Pertanto si avrà:
X = 8.500.000 / [(13.300 ⋅ 0.75) – 9.300] = 12.593 pezzi
I costi totali per il make (produzione interna) risultano essere:
Costi totali make = CV ⋅ X + CF = 9.300 ⋅ 12.593 + 8.500.000 = 125.614.900
I costi totali per il buy (acquisto dall’esterno):
Costi totali buy = [8.000 + 800⋅(1 + 0.25)]⋅12.593 + 3.500.000 + 5.000.000⋅(1 – 0.3) =
120.337.000
Evidentemente conviene acquistare dall’esterno.
Inoltre, se dopo 6 mesi il prezzo di vendita scende a 12.300, la produzione interna verrebbe a
pesare in termini di costi in misura maggiore dei ricavi. Infatti:
X = 8.500.000 / [(12.300 ⋅ 0.75) – 9.300] < 0
Se volessimo a questo punto acquistare dall’esterno, per poter raggiungere un margine di
profitto del 25%, occorrerebbe acquistare:
X = [3.500.000 + 5.000.000⋅(1 – 0.3)] / {(12.300 ⋅ 0.75) – [8.000 + 800⋅(1 + 0.25)]} = 31.112 pezzi
Commenti finali: se i costi variabili del bene prodotto internamente sono minori del prezzo del
bene acquistato all’esterno, è allora sempre conveniente il make in luogo del buy. In altri
termini, finché il prezzo di vendita è superiore alla somma dei costi unitari e dei costi fissi
specifici, conviene produrre internamente.
7. Esame 23/1/2001
Sergio PORCU 1
Esame 23/1/2001 – Costo Pieno e Valore WIP
La Crusc8 S.p.A. produce e vende un cruscotto per automobili. La produzione avviene in un
unico reparto dove dalla materia prima, tramite deformazione, si ottiene il cruscotto finale. I
dati relativi all’andamento produttivo del ’98 sono stati i seguenti:
• fatturato pari a 12 miliardi;
• quantità vendute: 100.000 cruscotti;
• costo dei materiali diretti pari a 3.9 miliardi;
• ogni cruscotto richiede 10 kg di MP;
• costi di MDO diretta ed energia pari a 1.6 miliardi;
• costi di funzionamento dell’ufficio acquisti pari a 1.3 miliardi;
• ammortamento dei macchinari pari a 1 miliardo;
• sono state prodotte 120.000 unità di prodotti finito, e a fine esercizio vi era una
giacenza di magazzino di 20.000 cruscotti pari al 50%;
• non vi erano a inizio anno giacenze di prodotti finiti.
Sulla base di questi dati si calcolino:
a) il costo pieno del prodotti finito;
b) il valore del WIP a fine esercizio;
c) per il ’99 si prevede un incremento della quantità prodotta di 80.000 unità a seguito di
una riduzione del prezzo di mercato dei cruscotti del 10%. L’impresa potrebbe affidare
all’esterno la produzione di queste unità aggiuntive per un prezzo di 45.000
L./cruscotto. Si valuti la convenienza economica di questa decisione rispetto a quella
di produrre internamente tutti i cruscotti. Si tenga presente che i costi di
ammortamento non sono eliminabili, mentre quelli dell’ufficio acquisti aumenterebbero
del 50% in caso di acquisto dei cruscotti aggiuntivi dall’esterno.
Soluzione:
• Costo Totale di Produzione
Materiali diretti 3.900.000.000
MDO diretta, energia 1.600.000.000
Ufficio Acquisti 1.300.000.000
Ammortamenti 1.000.000.000
Totale 7.800.000.000
• Totale Unità Prodotte
Unità di prodotti finito 120.000
Valore giacenze (20.000 ⋅ 0.5) 10.000
Totale 130.000
• Costo Unitario
Costo totale d produzione / Totale unità prodotte =
= 7.800.000.000 / 130.000 = 60.000
• Costo Pieno Prodotto Finito
Costo unitario ⋅ Unità di prodotto finito = 60.000 ⋅ 120.000 = 7.200.000.000
• Valore WIP a Fine Esercizio
Costo totale di produzione – Costo pieno prodotto finito =
= 7.800.000.000 – 7.200.000.000 = 600.000.000
…oppure…
Valore giacenze ⋅ Costo unitario = 10.000 ⋅ 60.000 = 600.000.000
Vediamo quale è la soluzione per il 1999.
• Acquisto dall’esterno
costo variabile totale = 45.000 ⋅ 80.000 = 3.600.000.000
costo fisso totale = 1.000.000.000 + 1.300.000.000 ⋅ (1 + 0.5) =
8. Esame 23/1/2001
Sergio PORCU 2
= 2.950.000.000
costo totale per acquisto esterno = 3.600.000.000 + 2.950.000.000 =
= 6.550.000.000
• Produzione interna
costo variabile unitario =
= (materiali diretti + MDO, energia) / totale unità prodotte =
= (3.900.000.000 + 1.600.000.000) / 130.000 = 42.308
costo variabile totale = costo variabile unitario ⋅ quantità prodotto =
= 42.308 ⋅ 80.000 = 3.384.640.000
costi fissi totali = ufficio acquisti + ammortamenti =
= 1.300.000.000 + 1.000.000.000 = 2.300.000.000
costo totale per la produzione interna = 2.300.000.000 + 3.384.640.000 =
= 5.684.640.000
L’alternativa MAKE permette di minimizzare i costi.
Una soluzione alternativa è quella di affrontare il problema con l’approccio differenziale, cioè
confrontando i ∆Ricavi e i ∆Costi che le due alternative introducono; in particolare ∆Aumento
di Costi (BUY) e ∆Aumento di Costi (MAKE).
Incremento Quantità = 80.000 U
BUY MAKE
C_acquisto 45000 x 80000 = 3600000000 CVU x 80000 = 42308 x 80000 = 3384640000
DC_uff.acquisti 1300000000 x 0,5 = 650000000 [CVU = (3900000000 + 1600000000) / 130000]
Totale 4250000000 Totale 3384640000
Anche in questo caso, l’alternativa migliore è rappresentata dal MAKE.