This document discusses various types of constructors in C++ including default, parameterized, copy constructors, and destructors. It also covers initialization lists, static class members, constant objects, and summarizes their key purposes and behaviors. Default constructors initialize objects without parameters, parameterized constructors allow passing initialization values, and copy constructors copy data from one object to another. Destructors clean up object resources. Initialization lists assign member values, static members have a single instance shared among objects, and constant objects cannot be modified.
Constructors, Destructors, call in parameterized Constructor, Multiple constructor in a class, Explicit/implicit call, Copy constructor, Dynamic Constructors and call in parameterized Constructor
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A function with no parameter and no return value
A function with parameter and no return value
A function with parameter and return value
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Stack is an Abstract Data Type (ADT), Last in First out (LIFO) concept.
Features of Stack: Abstract Data Type (ADT)
C implementations of Stack's Functions like push(), pop(), isEmpty(), isOverflow(), peep()
Stack Applications like Tower of Hanoi, Infix to Postfix Conversion, Postfix Evaluation, Parenthesis Checking etc.
Diagramatic Representation of Tower of Hanoi, Infix to Postfix Conversion & Postfix Evaluation
It tells about functions in C++,Types,Use,prototype,declaration,Arguments etc
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Constructors are special class functions which performs initialization of every object. The Compiler calls the Constructor whenever an object is created. Destructor on the other hand is used to destroy the class object.
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Certainly, here's a brief explanation of constructors, destructors, and operator overloading without using code:
Constructors: Constructors are special methods used to initialize objects of a class. They set the initial state of an object when it is created.
Destructors: Destructors are special methods used to clean up resources and perform necessary cleanup when an object is no longer needed or goes out of scope. They ensure proper resource management.
Operator Overloading: Operator overloading is a feature that allows you to define custom behaviors for operators such as +, -, *, /, etc., when they are applied to objects of your class. It enables you to work with objects in a way that is meaningful for your specific class.
Constructors can be of different types:
Default Constructors: Initialize objects with default values.
Parameterized Constructors: Accept arguments to initialize objects with specific values.
Copy Constructors: Create a new object as a copy of an existing object.
Constructor Overloading: A class can have multiple constructors with different parameter lists, providing flexibility in object initialization.
Destructors are executed automatically when an object is destroyed. They are essential for releasing resources like memory, file handles, or network connections, ensuring proper cleanup and preventing resource leaks.
Operator overloading enables you to define how operators work with objects of your class. For instance, you can specify what the + operator does when applied to two objects of your class, allowing for custom operations that make sense in the context of your class's functionality.
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Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
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students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
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• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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Constructor,destructors cpp
1. ObjectivesIn this chapter you will learn:
About default constructors
How to create parameterized constructors
How to work with initialization lists
How to create copy constructors
1
2. Advanced Constructors
Constructors can do more than initialize data
members
They can execute member functions and
perform other types of initialization routines
that a class may require when it first starts
2
3. Default Constructors
The default constructor does not include
parameters, and is called for any declared objects
of its class to which you do not pass arguments
Remember that you define and declare
constructor functions the same way you define
other functions, although you do not include a
return type because constructor functions do not
return values
3
4. Constructor Function
4
A Constructor is a special member function
whose task is to initialize the object of its
class. It is special because it name is same as
class name.
The Constructor is invoked whenever an
object of its associated class is created. It is
called constructor because it constructs the
values of data members of the class.
5. Default Constructors
The constructor function in Figure is an example
of a default constructor
In addition to initializing data members and
executing member functions, default constructors
perform various types of behind-the-scenes class
maintenance
5
6. Simple Program
6
// default constructor
#include<iostream>
Using namespace std;
Class integer
{
Int m,n;
Public:
Integer(void); // constructor declared
Void getinfo( );
};
Integer :: integer void( ) // constructor defined
{
m= 0;
n=0;
}
7. Parameterized Constructors
The constructor integer( ) define above initialize the
data members of all the objects to zero. However is
practice it may be necessary to initialize the various
data elements of different objects with different values,
when they are created.
A parameterized constructor allows a client to pass
initialization values to your class during object
instantiation
Instead of assigning default values, you can allow a
client to pass in the value for these data members by
designing the constructor function with parameters.
7
8. 8
Class integer
{
Int m, n;
Public :
Integer (int x, int y);
};
Integer :: integer(int x,int y)
{
m= x;
n=y;
}
By Calling the Constructor explicitly
By Calling the consructor implicitly
10. Copy Constructor
There will be times when you want to instantiate a
new object based on an existing object
C++ uses a copy constructor to exactly copy each of
the first object’s data members into the second
object’s data members in an operation known as
member wise copying
A copy constructor is a special constructor that is
called when a new object is instantiated from an old
object
10
11. Copy Constructor
The syntax for a copy constructor declaration is
class_name :: class_name (class_name &ptr)
The Copy Constructor may be used in the following format
also using a const keyword.
class_name :: class_name (const class_name & ptr)
Copy Constructor are always used when the compiler has to
create a temporary object of a class object.The copy
constructor are used in the following situations:-
The Initialization of an object by another object of the same
class.
Return of object as a function value.
Stating the object as by value parameters of a function.
11
12. Copy Constructor Example with Program
//fibonacci series using copy constructor
#include<iostream>
Using namespaces std ;
Class fibonacci {
Private :
Unsigned long int f0,f1,fib;
Public :
Fiboancci () // constructor
{
F0=0;
F1=1;
Fib=f0+f1;
}
Fibonacci (fibonacci &ptr) // copy construtor
{
F0=ptr.f0;
F1=ptr.f1;
Fib=prt.fib;
}
12
Void increment ( )
{
F0=f1;
F1=fib;
Fib=f0+f1;
}
Void display ( )
{
Cout<<fib<<‘/t’;
}
};
Void main( )
{
Fibonacci number ;
For(int i=0;i<=15;++i)
{
Number.display();
Number.increment();
}
}
13. #include<iostream> void display (void)
Using namespace std ; { cout<<id;
Class code // class name }
{ };
Int id; int main()
Public : {
Code() code A(100);//object A is created
// constructor name same as class name code B(A); // copy const. called
{ code C= A; // CC called again
} code D; // D is created, not intilized
Code(int a ) { // constructor again D=A; // C C not called
Id=a; cout<<“n” id of A:=A.display();
} cout<<“n” id of B:=B.display();
Code (code &x) // copy constuctor cout<<“n” id of C:=C.display();
{ id=x.id; // copy in the value cout<<“n” id of D:=D.display();
} return 0;
}
13
14. Destructors
Just as a default constructor is called when a class
object is first instantiated, a default destructor is
called when the object is destroyed
A default destructor cleans up any resources
allocated to an object once the object is destroyed
The default destructor is sufficient for most
classes, except when you have allocated memory
on the heap
14
15. Destructors
You create a destructor function using the name of
the class, the same as a constructor
A destructor is commonly called in two ways:
When a stack object loses scope because the function in
which it is declared ends
When a heap object is destroyed with the delete operator
15
16. Syntax rules for writing a dectructor function :
A destructor function name is the same as that of the
class it belongs except that the first character of the
name must be a tilde ( ~).
It is declared with no return types ( not even void)
since it cannot even return a value.
It cannot de declared static ,const or volatile.
It takes no arguments and therefore cannot be
overloaded.
It should have public access in the class declaration.
16
19. 19
{
Cout<<“data base has been deletedn”
}
// to deposit
Void account ::deposit( )
{
Float amount;
Cout<<“how much amount want to deposit”;
Cin>>amount;
Balance=balace+amount ;
}
// the program is not complete , the purpose is to clear the function
of constructor and destructor
21. Cout<<“n No. of object destroyed “<<count;
Count --;
}
};
Int main()
{ cout<<“n n Enter mainn”;
Alpha A1 A2 A3 A4;
{
Cout<<“nn Enter block 1n”;
Alpha A5;
}
{ cout<<“nn Enter Block 2 n”;
Alpha A6;
} 21
22. Cout<<“n n RE-enter Mainn”;
Return 0; Enter Block 2
No. of object created :5
} Re-Enter Main
No. of object destroyed
Output : Enter Main 4,3,2,1
No. of object created 1
No. of object created 2
No. of object created 3
No. of object created 4
Enter Block 1
No. ofobject created 5
No. of object Destroyed 5
22
23. Static Class Members
You can use the static keyword when declaring
class members
Static class members are somewhat different
from static variables
When you declare a class member to be static,
only one copy of that class member is created
during a program’s execution, regardless of how
many objects of the class you instantiate
Figure 7-38 illustrates the concept of the static
and non-static data members with the Payroll
class
23
25. Static Data Members
You declare a static data member in your
implementation file using the syntax static
typename;, similar to the way you define a
static variable
static data members are bound by access
specifiers, the same as non-static data members
This means that public static data members
are accessible by anyone, whereas private
static data members are available only to other
functions in the class or to friend functions
25
26. Static Data Members
You could use a statement in the class constructor,
although doing so will reset a static variable’s value
to its initial value each time a new object of the class
is instantiated
Instead, to assign an initial value to a static data
member, you add a global statement to the
implementation file using the syntax type
class::variable=value;
Initializing a static data member at the global level
ensures that it is only initialized when a program first
executes—not each time you instantiate a new object
26
27. Static Data MembersFigure 7-39 contains an example of the Stocks class,
with the iStockCount static data member
Statements in the constructor and destructor
increment and decrement the iStockCount variable
each time a new Stocks object is created or destroyed
Figure 7-40 shows the program’s output
27
28. Static Data MembersYou can refer to a static data member by appending
its name and the member selection operator to any
instantiated object of the same class, using syntax such
as stockPick.iStockCount
By using the class name and the scope resolution
operator instead of any instantiated object of the class,
you clearly identify the data member as static
Figure 7-41 in the text shows an example of the Stocks
class program with the dPortfolioValue static data
member
The dPortfolioValue static data member is assigned
an initial value of 0 (zero) in the implementation file
28
29. Static Data Members
To add to the Estimator class a static data
member that stores the combined total of each
customer’s estimate, follow the instructions listed
on pages 403 and 404 of the textbook
29
30. Static Member FunctionsStatic member functions are useful for accessing
static data members
Like static data members, they can be accessed
independently of any individual class objects
This is useful when you need to retrieve the
contents of a static data member that is
declared as private
Static member functions are somewhat limited
because they can only access other static class
members or functions and variables located
outside of the class
30
31. Static Member Functions
You declare a static member function similar to
the way you declare a static data member-- by
preceding the function declaration in the interface
file with the static keyword
You do not include the static keyword in the
function definition in the implementation file
Like static data members, you need to call a
static member function’s name only from inside
another member function of the same class
31
32. Static Member Functions
You can execute static member functions even
if no object of a class is instantiated
One use of static member functions is to access
private static data members
To add to the Estimator class a static member
function that returns the value of the static
lCombinedCost data member, use the steps on
pages 405 and 406 of the textbook
32
33. Constant Objects
If you have any type of variable in a program that
does not change, you should always use the const
keyword to declare the variable as a constant
Constants are an important aspect of good
programming technique because they prevent
clients (or you) from modifying data that should
not change
Because objects are also variables, they too can be
declared as constants
33
34. Constant Objects
As with other types of data, you only declare an
object as constant if it does not change
Constant data members in a class cannot be
assigned values using a standard assignment
statement within the body of a member function
You must use an initialization list to assign initial
values to these types of data members
There is an example of this code shown on page
407 of the textbook
34
35. Constant Objects
Another good programming technique is to always
use the const keyword to declare get functions
that do not modify data members as constant
functions
The const keyword makes your programs more
reliable by ensuring that functions that are not
supposed to modify data cannot modify data
To define the Estimator class’s get functions as
constant, perform the procedures listed on page
408 of the textbook
35
36. Summary
The default constructor is the constructor that
does not include any parameters and that is called
for any declared objects of its class to which you
do not pass arguments
Initialization lists, or member initialization lists,
are another way of assigning initial values to a
class’s data members
A copy constructor is a special constructor that is
called when a new object is instantiated from an
old object
36
37. Summary
Operator overloading refers to the creation of
multiple versions of C++ operators that perform
special tasks required by the class in which an
overloaded operator function is defined
When you declare a class member to be static,
only one copy of that class member is created
during a program’s execution, regardless of how
many objects of the class you instantiate
37