This document outlines key concepts related to linguistic universals and language typology. It defines universals as common features found across languages and discusses two major approaches: Universal Grammar and typological universals. Typological universals are identified by analyzing patterns across many language samples. Other topics covered include markedness, implicational vs. non-implicational universals, tendencies vs. absolutes, word order typology and critiques of typological approaches. The document provides an overview of the field of linguistic typology and its relationship to the study of language universals.
The document discusses sociolinguistics and language variation. It defines sociolinguistics as the systematic study of language in society, focusing on how individuals and groups use language in social contexts. There are three main perspectives in sociolinguistics: geographic, examining regional dialects; anthropological, studying the relationship between language, culture and thought; and sociological, analyzing the link between social relations and language varieties. Speech communities are groups that share the same or similar language varieties. Varieties include dialects, sociolects, and idiolects, which differ by region, social class, gender, age, and ethnicity at the lexical, phonological and syntactic levels. Pidgins are simplified mixed languages for basic communication between
Pidgins are contact languages that develop for communication between groups with no shared language. They are simplified mixtures of existing languages, prioritizing ease of learning over complete grammar. Pidgins form where trade or migration brings groups together, adopting vocabulary from dominant groups but syntax from subordinate ones. They lack morphology and replace inflections with separate words. Pidgins have their own structured rules and communities of users, making them independent languages rather than "bad varieties" of the languages they incorporate.
Structuralism is an intellectual movement that analyzes fields as systems of interrelated parts that derive meaning from their relationships. It views language and the mind as structures formed by associations. Structuralism developed in early 1900s Europe through the structural linguistics of Saussure and later schools. It emphasizes that meaning is determined by context and relationships within a system. Structuralism had influence on linguistics, sociology, anthropology and other fields.
The document discusses the concept of speech communities. It defines a speech community as a group of people who share similar language ideas, uses and norms. It notes that members of a speech community use language according to a set of shared norms and characteristics. The document outlines key elements of speech communities including population, area, facilities, identification and interaction. It also discusses sociolinguistic variables that can cause one to belong to one speech community and not another, such as age, social class, education and others.
The document defines key concepts in the study of language variation:
Varieties are sets of linguistic features associated with a group. Dialects differ grammatically and lexically from other varieties and are associated with a social group. Accents only differ in pronunciation. Styles vary based on social situations. Dialect contact from communication between groups can lead to dialect mixture and the formation of new dialects or koines. Registers are varieties associated with topics or activities.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic imperialism and linguicism. It defines linguistic imperialism as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages, using English as the primary example. It asserts that linguistic imperialism is a form of cultural imperialism that is propagated through four mechanisms: exploitation, penetration, fragmentation, and marginalization. Linguicism refers to unfair treatment or negative attitudes towards individuals based solely on their use of language, such as discrimination against a person's mother tongue or local dialect. The document contrasts linguicism with other forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.
Language deth, language shift, marker, micro/macro sociolinguisticsIqramushtaq1142
This document discusses key topics in sociolinguistics including language shift, language death, markers, and micro/macrosociolinguistics. It provides definitions and examples of language shift, where a community gradually abandons its original language for another, often occurring over 3-4 generations through a stage of bilingualism. Language death is the end point of shift when a language has no remaining native speakers. Markers are linguistic variables that correlate with social groups and speech styles. Microsociolinguistics examines language in relation to society at a small scale while macrosociolinguistics looks at larger societal behaviors and impacts on language.
This document discusses Universal Grammar and Chomsky's theory of language acquisition. It defines Universal Grammar as the idea that the ability to learn grammar is innate. The theory proposes that all human languages share certain properties. Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of rules, or Universal Grammar, that provide the common structural basis for all languages. The document also outlines three hypotheses for how language evolved and discusses criticisms of Universal Grammar, including that it has no coherent formulation and conflicts with principles of biological evolution.
The document discusses sociolinguistics and language variation. It defines sociolinguistics as the systematic study of language in society, focusing on how individuals and groups use language in social contexts. There are three main perspectives in sociolinguistics: geographic, examining regional dialects; anthropological, studying the relationship between language, culture and thought; and sociological, analyzing the link between social relations and language varieties. Speech communities are groups that share the same or similar language varieties. Varieties include dialects, sociolects, and idiolects, which differ by region, social class, gender, age, and ethnicity at the lexical, phonological and syntactic levels. Pidgins are simplified mixed languages for basic communication between
Pidgins are contact languages that develop for communication between groups with no shared language. They are simplified mixtures of existing languages, prioritizing ease of learning over complete grammar. Pidgins form where trade or migration brings groups together, adopting vocabulary from dominant groups but syntax from subordinate ones. They lack morphology and replace inflections with separate words. Pidgins have their own structured rules and communities of users, making them independent languages rather than "bad varieties" of the languages they incorporate.
Structuralism is an intellectual movement that analyzes fields as systems of interrelated parts that derive meaning from their relationships. It views language and the mind as structures formed by associations. Structuralism developed in early 1900s Europe through the structural linguistics of Saussure and later schools. It emphasizes that meaning is determined by context and relationships within a system. Structuralism had influence on linguistics, sociology, anthropology and other fields.
The document discusses the concept of speech communities. It defines a speech community as a group of people who share similar language ideas, uses and norms. It notes that members of a speech community use language according to a set of shared norms and characteristics. The document outlines key elements of speech communities including population, area, facilities, identification and interaction. It also discusses sociolinguistic variables that can cause one to belong to one speech community and not another, such as age, social class, education and others.
The document defines key concepts in the study of language variation:
Varieties are sets of linguistic features associated with a group. Dialects differ grammatically and lexically from other varieties and are associated with a social group. Accents only differ in pronunciation. Styles vary based on social situations. Dialect contact from communication between groups can lead to dialect mixture and the formation of new dialects or koines. Registers are varieties associated with topics or activities.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic imperialism and linguicism. It defines linguistic imperialism as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages, using English as the primary example. It asserts that linguistic imperialism is a form of cultural imperialism that is propagated through four mechanisms: exploitation, penetration, fragmentation, and marginalization. Linguicism refers to unfair treatment or negative attitudes towards individuals based solely on their use of language, such as discrimination against a person's mother tongue or local dialect. The document contrasts linguicism with other forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.
Language deth, language shift, marker, micro/macro sociolinguisticsIqramushtaq1142
This document discusses key topics in sociolinguistics including language shift, language death, markers, and micro/macrosociolinguistics. It provides definitions and examples of language shift, where a community gradually abandons its original language for another, often occurring over 3-4 generations through a stage of bilingualism. Language death is the end point of shift when a language has no remaining native speakers. Markers are linguistic variables that correlate with social groups and speech styles. Microsociolinguistics examines language in relation to society at a small scale while macrosociolinguistics looks at larger societal behaviors and impacts on language.
This document discusses Universal Grammar and Chomsky's theory of language acquisition. It defines Universal Grammar as the idea that the ability to learn grammar is innate. The theory proposes that all human languages share certain properties. Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of rules, or Universal Grammar, that provide the common structural basis for all languages. The document also outlines three hypotheses for how language evolved and discusses criticisms of Universal Grammar, including that it has no coherent formulation and conflicts with principles of biological evolution.
Generativism refers to the theory of language developed by Noam Chomsky and his followers. It holds that language is innate and that humans possess a language acquisition device. Chomsky argued against behaviorism, proposing that language is not learned through stimulus and response. Instead, he believed that humans are born with an innate, universal grammar that allows children to learn language quickly despite limited exposure. Generativism also distinguishes between competence, the innate linguistic knowledge, and performance, how language is produced and understood. It views language as rule-governed and creative.
Language policy and planning : Between Economics and IdentityFederico Gobbo
This document discusses language policy and planning (LPP) and provides an overview of key concepts in the field. It begins by situating LPP within the broader field of linguistics, noting that LPP investigates language behavior in relation to society and identity. The document then discusses some basic definitions of LPP and related fields. It provides examples of how LPP case studies are analyzed using levels of abstraction, with the goal of identifying participants, outcomes, and potential ethical dilemmas. Finally, it discusses speculative scenarios for addressing issues identified in the analysis in an idealistic, minimalistic, or pragmatic manner.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
Linguists in the 19th century reconstructed dead languages by comparing their structures and finding similarities to related living languages. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure developed structuralism, seeing language as a system of signs independent of speakers. Structuralism then split into European and North American forms. North American structuralism focused on objective, rigorous analysis of observable speech patterns without reference to meaning.
The document discusses the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which proposes that the language we speak influences our thoughts and worldview. It provides a brief history of the hypothesis and its developers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. Examples are given of how aspects like verb tenses, social relationships, and word order are structured differently across languages and thus shape perspectives in culturally unique ways. The implementation of linguistic relativity in language teaching and issues with translation between languages with differing thought patterns are also examined.
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact. A key concept is that we alter our language based on social factors like the setting, participants, and topic of conversation. Pidgins develop as languages of contact between groups without a shared language, using simplified grammar and vocabulary from the source languages. If a pidgin is passed down to children as their primary language, it becomes a creole, a fully developed language with its own complex linguistic system. Code-switching and code-mixing occur when multilingual speakers blend elements of multiple languages in a single conversation for reasons of identity, emphasis, or lack of a word in one language.
The document discusses political discourse and analyzes Benazir Bhutto's last speech. It defines political discourse, domains of politics, and outlines Bhutto's speech. The speech is then analyzed according key elements: emotional attachment to motivate supporters, mind control through references to the past, glorifying her party's legacy, historical distortion, rhetoric techniques like repetition, and frequently using words like "you" to engage the audience. The conclusion is that Bhutto cites history in a way to deliberately influence the audience's minds.
This document discusses the complex relationship between language and dialect. It begins by defining key terms like language, dialect, accent, and register. It then examines different ways languages and dialects have been categorized, such as by mutual intelligibility, prestige, size, and through the family tree model of tracing linguistic descent. However, the document notes there is no clear distinction between language and dialect, as variations exist on a continuum. Factors like politics, history and social perceptions further complicate defining and delimiting languages versus dialects.
The document discusses cognitive factors that influence success in second language learning. It identifies three key cognitive factors: intelligence, language aptitude, and language learning strategies. Intelligence refers to mental abilities measured by IQ tests, and may play a stronger role in rule-based language learning than communicative learning. Language aptitude comprises an individual's ability to identify sounds, understand word functions, deduce rules, and memorize words - it is one of the strongest indicators of success. Effective language learners employ helpful strategies like planning, monitoring, and rehearsal. Teachers can support students' development by understanding these cognitive factors and tailoring their instruction accordingly.
The document discusses the concept of a lingua franca, which is a language used for communication between groups that do not share a native language. It provides examples such as Arabic serving as a lingua franca in the Islamic world historically and English currently serving as a global lingua franca. When languages are used as lingua francas, they often undergo simplification, reduction, and interference from other languages, which can result in the development of a pidgin language over time if it becomes stabilized and acquires native speakers. Pidgins are then subject to creolization if they are learned as a first language by children and expand in structural complexity and social uses.
Linguistics can be divided into several branches based on the perspective or focus of study. At the highest level, linguistics is divided into general linguistics, which studies language universally, and descriptive linguistics, which studies specific languages. It is also divided into diachronic linguistics, which studies language change over time, and synchronic linguistics, which analyzes language at a single point in time. Additional distinctions include theoretical vs applied linguistics, and micro- vs macro-linguistics. Micro-linguistics includes the study of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Macro-linguistics includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neu
This document discusses Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar and its implications for first and second language acquisition. Some key points:
- Chomsky proposed that all humans are born with an innate, universal grammar that explains underlying linguistic knowledge. This helps explain why language acquisition follows similar developmental patterns across languages.
- Universal Grammar consists of principles that are universal across languages and parameters that can vary between languages. Learners need only set parameter values based on the language input.
- Evidence from first language acquisition supports the idea that children arrive at complex grammatical rules too quickly to learn from input alone, suggesting an innate linguistic system.
- Universal Grammar can account for both first and second language acquisition, as second language
The document discusses language standardization, including how and why languages become standardized. It notes that standardization is a prescriptive process that develops a standard variety of a language. Languages typically become standardized through resources like dictionaries, grammars, pronunciation guides from linguistic institutions, constitutional status as an official language, use in public domains like courts and schools, literary works, and popularity/acceptance in the community. Establishing a standard variety aims to promote national cohesion. The standard variety often reflects the language of higher socioeconomic groups. Examples are given of standardization processes and debates in countries like Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde. Related scientific papers and books on topics like the politics of standardization and its
This document discusses creoles and pidgins from linguistic and social perspectives. It defines creoles as pidgins that have acquired native speakers, arising through extended contact between language groups where one dominates. Creoles provide insights into the origins and identities of their speaker communities. The document also discusses decreolization as the process where a creole converges over time with a dominant standard language. Key terms related to decreolization include basilect, acrolect, mesolect and post-creole continuum. The process of creolization whereby a pidgin develops into a creole through generations acquiring it as a first language is also examined.
Group 04 presented on the topic of endangered languages. The document defined language death as occurring when a language loses its last native speaker. It noted that over 7,000 languages are currently spoken but many are endangered and being replaced by more dominant languages. The types of language death were described as gradual, bottom-to-top, top-to-bottom, radical, and linguicide. Factors that can help preserve endangered languages were also discussed, such as strong ethnic identity, school programs in the language, and community involvement.
This document discusses pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as mixtures of languages formed for communication between communities, while creoles develop when a pidgin becomes the native language of a community. Pidgins have simple structures without native speakers, whereas creoles have more complex structures and are the first language of a group. Theories on the origins of pidgins and creoles include baby talk theory, polygenesis, relexification, and monogenesis. Creoles are influenced by but distinct from their lexifier languages in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and social functions.
This document provides an overview of contrastive analysis between English and Arabic. It begins with the objectives of familiarizing trainee teachers with contrastive analysis and its pedagogical implications. The document then defines contrastive analysis and outlines its emergence. Key points of contrast between English and Arabic phonology, grammar, and other linguistic features are described. Finally, the interference of an Arabic mother tongue on learning English is discussed through case studies of errors related to redundancy, prepositions, syntax, and other areas. The document aims to help teachers address challenges English learners face due to their native language.
This document provides an overview of sociolinguistics, defining it as the study of language in relation to society. It discusses key concepts like speech communities, prestige varieties, and language contact. The main representatives discussed are William Labov and Basil Bernstein. Methodologies introduced by Labov are also summarized, including the use of minimal pairs, word lists, and interviews to study language variation. The document emphasizes the importance of sociolinguistics for understanding language variations and its relevance for teaching foreign languages.
This document discusses pidgin and creole languages. It defines pidgin as a reduced language that develops for communication between groups without a shared language, while a creole is a pidgin that becomes a community's native language. The document outlines the key differences between pidgins and creoles, such as pidgins having no native speakers and simpler structure, while creoles are fully developed languages. Several examples of pidgin and creole languages are provided.
This presentation answers some questions like: ''How are languages planned in multilingual countries?, What is the role of TDK in Turkish language reform?, What are the processes of Language Planning?'' Language planning in Switzerland, Canada, India and USA is mentioned in this presentation.
The document discusses the fields of anthropological linguistics and linguistic anthropology. It begins by defining anthropology and linguistics separately, noting that anthropology is the study of humans past and present through various subfields including linguistic anthropology. Linguistics is defined as the study of human speech and language. It then explains that linguistic anthropology studies how language reflects and influences social life, with a focus on power, inequality, and social change. The document goes on to compare descriptive versus contextual linguistics and lists some related fields. It provides brief overviews of the paradigms and influential figures in linguistic anthropology.
Chomsky proposed the theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the human brain is equipped at birth with an innate set of rules for organizing language. Greenberg identified statistical tendencies across languages, such as subject-verb-object word order and genitive-noun order. While both theories aim to identify linguistic universals, Chomsky focused on abstract innate properties and Greenberg used empirical patterns in data from many languages. Debate continues on the extent of innate linguistic properties versus properties that emerge from language use and experience.
Generativism refers to the theory of language developed by Noam Chomsky and his followers. It holds that language is innate and that humans possess a language acquisition device. Chomsky argued against behaviorism, proposing that language is not learned through stimulus and response. Instead, he believed that humans are born with an innate, universal grammar that allows children to learn language quickly despite limited exposure. Generativism also distinguishes between competence, the innate linguistic knowledge, and performance, how language is produced and understood. It views language as rule-governed and creative.
Language policy and planning : Between Economics and IdentityFederico Gobbo
This document discusses language policy and planning (LPP) and provides an overview of key concepts in the field. It begins by situating LPP within the broader field of linguistics, noting that LPP investigates language behavior in relation to society and identity. The document then discusses some basic definitions of LPP and related fields. It provides examples of how LPP case studies are analyzed using levels of abstraction, with the goal of identifying participants, outcomes, and potential ethical dilemmas. Finally, it discusses speculative scenarios for addressing issues identified in the analysis in an idealistic, minimalistic, or pragmatic manner.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
Linguists in the 19th century reconstructed dead languages by comparing their structures and finding similarities to related living languages. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure developed structuralism, seeing language as a system of signs independent of speakers. Structuralism then split into European and North American forms. North American structuralism focused on objective, rigorous analysis of observable speech patterns without reference to meaning.
The document discusses the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which proposes that the language we speak influences our thoughts and worldview. It provides a brief history of the hypothesis and its developers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. Examples are given of how aspects like verb tenses, social relationships, and word order are structured differently across languages and thus shape perspectives in culturally unique ways. The implementation of linguistic relativity in language teaching and issues with translation between languages with differing thought patterns are also examined.
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact. A key concept is that we alter our language based on social factors like the setting, participants, and topic of conversation. Pidgins develop as languages of contact between groups without a shared language, using simplified grammar and vocabulary from the source languages. If a pidgin is passed down to children as their primary language, it becomes a creole, a fully developed language with its own complex linguistic system. Code-switching and code-mixing occur when multilingual speakers blend elements of multiple languages in a single conversation for reasons of identity, emphasis, or lack of a word in one language.
The document discusses political discourse and analyzes Benazir Bhutto's last speech. It defines political discourse, domains of politics, and outlines Bhutto's speech. The speech is then analyzed according key elements: emotional attachment to motivate supporters, mind control through references to the past, glorifying her party's legacy, historical distortion, rhetoric techniques like repetition, and frequently using words like "you" to engage the audience. The conclusion is that Bhutto cites history in a way to deliberately influence the audience's minds.
This document discusses the complex relationship between language and dialect. It begins by defining key terms like language, dialect, accent, and register. It then examines different ways languages and dialects have been categorized, such as by mutual intelligibility, prestige, size, and through the family tree model of tracing linguistic descent. However, the document notes there is no clear distinction between language and dialect, as variations exist on a continuum. Factors like politics, history and social perceptions further complicate defining and delimiting languages versus dialects.
The document discusses cognitive factors that influence success in second language learning. It identifies three key cognitive factors: intelligence, language aptitude, and language learning strategies. Intelligence refers to mental abilities measured by IQ tests, and may play a stronger role in rule-based language learning than communicative learning. Language aptitude comprises an individual's ability to identify sounds, understand word functions, deduce rules, and memorize words - it is one of the strongest indicators of success. Effective language learners employ helpful strategies like planning, monitoring, and rehearsal. Teachers can support students' development by understanding these cognitive factors and tailoring their instruction accordingly.
The document discusses the concept of a lingua franca, which is a language used for communication between groups that do not share a native language. It provides examples such as Arabic serving as a lingua franca in the Islamic world historically and English currently serving as a global lingua franca. When languages are used as lingua francas, they often undergo simplification, reduction, and interference from other languages, which can result in the development of a pidgin language over time if it becomes stabilized and acquires native speakers. Pidgins are then subject to creolization if they are learned as a first language by children and expand in structural complexity and social uses.
Linguistics can be divided into several branches based on the perspective or focus of study. At the highest level, linguistics is divided into general linguistics, which studies language universally, and descriptive linguistics, which studies specific languages. It is also divided into diachronic linguistics, which studies language change over time, and synchronic linguistics, which analyzes language at a single point in time. Additional distinctions include theoretical vs applied linguistics, and micro- vs macro-linguistics. Micro-linguistics includes the study of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Macro-linguistics includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neu
This document discusses Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar and its implications for first and second language acquisition. Some key points:
- Chomsky proposed that all humans are born with an innate, universal grammar that explains underlying linguistic knowledge. This helps explain why language acquisition follows similar developmental patterns across languages.
- Universal Grammar consists of principles that are universal across languages and parameters that can vary between languages. Learners need only set parameter values based on the language input.
- Evidence from first language acquisition supports the idea that children arrive at complex grammatical rules too quickly to learn from input alone, suggesting an innate linguistic system.
- Universal Grammar can account for both first and second language acquisition, as second language
The document discusses language standardization, including how and why languages become standardized. It notes that standardization is a prescriptive process that develops a standard variety of a language. Languages typically become standardized through resources like dictionaries, grammars, pronunciation guides from linguistic institutions, constitutional status as an official language, use in public domains like courts and schools, literary works, and popularity/acceptance in the community. Establishing a standard variety aims to promote national cohesion. The standard variety often reflects the language of higher socioeconomic groups. Examples are given of standardization processes and debates in countries like Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde. Related scientific papers and books on topics like the politics of standardization and its
This document discusses creoles and pidgins from linguistic and social perspectives. It defines creoles as pidgins that have acquired native speakers, arising through extended contact between language groups where one dominates. Creoles provide insights into the origins and identities of their speaker communities. The document also discusses decreolization as the process where a creole converges over time with a dominant standard language. Key terms related to decreolization include basilect, acrolect, mesolect and post-creole continuum. The process of creolization whereby a pidgin develops into a creole through generations acquiring it as a first language is also examined.
Group 04 presented on the topic of endangered languages. The document defined language death as occurring when a language loses its last native speaker. It noted that over 7,000 languages are currently spoken but many are endangered and being replaced by more dominant languages. The types of language death were described as gradual, bottom-to-top, top-to-bottom, radical, and linguicide. Factors that can help preserve endangered languages were also discussed, such as strong ethnic identity, school programs in the language, and community involvement.
This document discusses pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as mixtures of languages formed for communication between communities, while creoles develop when a pidgin becomes the native language of a community. Pidgins have simple structures without native speakers, whereas creoles have more complex structures and are the first language of a group. Theories on the origins of pidgins and creoles include baby talk theory, polygenesis, relexification, and monogenesis. Creoles are influenced by but distinct from their lexifier languages in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and social functions.
This document provides an overview of contrastive analysis between English and Arabic. It begins with the objectives of familiarizing trainee teachers with contrastive analysis and its pedagogical implications. The document then defines contrastive analysis and outlines its emergence. Key points of contrast between English and Arabic phonology, grammar, and other linguistic features are described. Finally, the interference of an Arabic mother tongue on learning English is discussed through case studies of errors related to redundancy, prepositions, syntax, and other areas. The document aims to help teachers address challenges English learners face due to their native language.
This document provides an overview of sociolinguistics, defining it as the study of language in relation to society. It discusses key concepts like speech communities, prestige varieties, and language contact. The main representatives discussed are William Labov and Basil Bernstein. Methodologies introduced by Labov are also summarized, including the use of minimal pairs, word lists, and interviews to study language variation. The document emphasizes the importance of sociolinguistics for understanding language variations and its relevance for teaching foreign languages.
This document discusses pidgin and creole languages. It defines pidgin as a reduced language that develops for communication between groups without a shared language, while a creole is a pidgin that becomes a community's native language. The document outlines the key differences between pidgins and creoles, such as pidgins having no native speakers and simpler structure, while creoles are fully developed languages. Several examples of pidgin and creole languages are provided.
This presentation answers some questions like: ''How are languages planned in multilingual countries?, What is the role of TDK in Turkish language reform?, What are the processes of Language Planning?'' Language planning in Switzerland, Canada, India and USA is mentioned in this presentation.
The document discusses the fields of anthropological linguistics and linguistic anthropology. It begins by defining anthropology and linguistics separately, noting that anthropology is the study of humans past and present through various subfields including linguistic anthropology. Linguistics is defined as the study of human speech and language. It then explains that linguistic anthropology studies how language reflects and influences social life, with a focus on power, inequality, and social change. The document goes on to compare descriptive versus contextual linguistics and lists some related fields. It provides brief overviews of the paradigms and influential figures in linguistic anthropology.
Chomsky proposed the theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the human brain is equipped at birth with an innate set of rules for organizing language. Greenberg identified statistical tendencies across languages, such as subject-verb-object word order and genitive-noun order. While both theories aim to identify linguistic universals, Chomsky focused on abstract innate properties and Greenberg used empirical patterns in data from many languages. Debate continues on the extent of innate linguistic properties versus properties that emerge from language use and experience.
Computational accounts of human learning biasKevin McMullin
1. The document discusses computational accounts of human learning biases and their implications for locality in phonological patterns.
2. It notes that while humans can learn regular languages, the entire class of regular languages is not learnable by any single learning algorithm according to formal language theory.
3. The author proposes that humans restrict their hypothesis space to a well-defined subset of regular languages, like those typologies predicted by Optimality Theory or the Subregular Hierarchy, to resolve this learnability problem.
Available online at www.sciencedirect.comLanguage Sciences 3.docxrock73
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Language Sciences 31 (2009) 213–238
www.elsevier.com/locate/langsci
How (not) to do phonological typology: the case of pitch-accent
Larry M. Hyman
Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2650, USA
Abstract
In this paper I argue for a property-driven approach to phonological typology. Rather than seeking to classify or label
languages, the central goal of phonological typology is to determine how different languages systematize the phonetic sub-
stance available to all languages. The paper focuses on a very murky area in phonological typology, word-prosodic sys-
tems. While there is agreement that certain properties converge to characterize two prosodic prototypes, tone and
stress, the term ‘‘pitch-accent” is frequently adopted to refer to a defective tone system whose tone is obligatory, culmina-
tive, privative, metrical, and/or restricted in distribution. Drawing from a database of ca. 600 tone systems, I show that
none of these properties is found in all systems claimed to be accentual and that all five are amply attested in canonical
tone systems. Since all one can say is that alleged pitch-accent systems exhibit significant constraints on the distribution
of their tonal contrasts, they do not constitute a coherent prosodic ‘‘type”. Rather, alleged ‘‘pitch-accent” systems freely
pick-and-choose properties from the tone and stress prototypes, producing mixed, ambiguous, and sometimes analytically
indeterminate systems which appear to be ‘‘intermediate”. There thus is no pitch-accent prototype, nor can prosodic sys-
tems be treated as a continuum placed along a single linear dimension. The paper concludes that the goal of prosodic typol-
ogy should not be to classify languages, but rather the properties of their subsystems.
� 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Culminativity; Metrical structure pitch-accent; Privativity; Stress; Tonal density; Tone; Typology
1. Introduction
The goal of this paper is to argue for what I will term PROPERTY-DRIVEN TYPOLOGY, particularly as it applies
to phonology, which I will illustrate via some of the claims made about so-called pitch-accent languages.
Within the literature, there have been two ways of talking about typology (and by extension, phonological
typology). The first defines the goal of typology as the classification of languages according to their properties.
Thus, for Hagège (1992, p. 7), typology strives to provide ‘‘. . .a principled way of classifying the languages of
the world by the most significant properties which distinguish one from another.” Vajda (2001) takes a similar
position with respect to phonological typology: ‘‘. . .it is possible to classify languages according to the
phonemes they contain. . . typology is the study of structural features across languages. Phonological typology
involves comparing languages according to the number or type of sounds they contain.” A second way of
0388-0 ...
The document discusses different approaches to and perspectives on grammar, including:
- Descriptive grammar studies language as actually used, while prescriptive grammar prescribes "correct" usage.
- Various types of grammar focus on different aspects, such as comparative grammar examining language relationships, generative grammar studying sentence structure rules, and reference grammars describing language principles.
- Theoretical debates include whether to prioritize rules or usage, and how best to teach grammar to facilitate language learning and communication.
This document provides an overview of a presentation on ways of teaching grammar. The presentation includes 3 sessions: 1) rethinking pedagogical grammar and what grammar is/why we learn it, 2) introducing 3 alternative grammar teaching methods - awareness raising, text-based teaching, and task-based teaching, 3) concluding questions and comments. The document also includes examples to illustrate concepts discussed in the presentation such as the structure of interrogative questions and different types of grammars.
Applied linguistics began in the 1950s with the founding of the University of Edinburgh School of Applied Linguistics in 1956 and the Center of Applied Linguistics in Washington D.C. in 1957. The British Association of Applied Linguistics was formally established in 1967 to promote the study of language use, acquisition, and teaching. Applied linguistics is concerned with the role of language in people's lives and problems associated with language use, drawing from linguistics as well as other fields like education, sociology, and anthropology. It differs from linguistics in that linguistics focuses only on describing language itself, while applied linguistics seeks to address real-world language issues.
Applied Linguistics wrapped in a Nutshell.pptxDaShinobi
Applied linguistics is the theoretical and empirical study of real-world language problems. It has several main branches that study different aspects of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Applied linguistics is concerned with issues like language learning, bilingualism, and solving practical language-related problems, unlike general linguistics which focuses only on analyzing language itself. It uses both qualitative and quantitative methods and draws from linguistics as well as other fields like psychology.
The universalty of human Language(Chapter 2)zahraa Aamir
All human languages share fundamental similarities despite differences in vocabulary and rules. They all have lexicons containing words and grammars establishing rules for sounds, words, and sentences. Grammars are organized through components for phonology, morphology, and syntax. While languages vary in details like word order or use of inflection, these variations are limited and fall into broad classes defined by Universal Grammar. Lexicons specify words for a given language but represent words in fundamentally similar ways across languages.
The document discusses Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate, hardwired capacity to learn grammar. It suggests that all natural human languages share certain structural properties and constraints. The theory aims to explain how children are able to learn grammar from limited linguistic input by positing that the human brain contains a "blueprint" or set of principles that guide language acquisition. The document provides examples of linguistic features that some claim are shared across languages, like the presence of lexical categories and phrase structure. It also discusses how the existence of creole languages may support the theory by demonstrating certain grammatical commonalities that emerge rapidly in newly formed languages.
This document summarizes key concepts from Transformational Grammar between pages 33-43. It discusses deep and surface structure, transformational rules that relate these levels of representation, and issues in grammatical theory including the centrality of syntax and debates around the innateness of language. The summary provides an overview of these core topics in the development of Transformational Grammar.
Grammar can be defined as the systematic study and description of language. It involves the study of syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics and pragmatics. Noam Chomsky was one of the most influential linguists of the 20th century who was interested in grammaticality and how humans use a finite set of structures and rules to produce an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences. According to Chomsky, humans are born with an innate language acquisition device and universal grammar that helps children learn the rules of their native language.
This document discusses a study that investigates how bilingual speakers select words in the intended language during speech production. It provides background on models of lexical selection, including semantic competition effects shown in monolingual studies. For bilinguals, representations from both languages may compete, requiring an inhibition mechanism. The study combines semantic blocking and language switching paradigms to address whether selection involves active inhibition of the non-target language or competition from the target language only. Results are expected to provide insights into the nature of the language selection mechanism in highly proficient bilingual speakers.
Natural Phonology by Hussain H Mayuuf/2013Hhm Mayuuf
This document provides an overview of the theory of Natural Phonology. It discusses how Natural Phonology emerged in response to other phonological theories of the time. Natural Phonology views phonology as a system of mental processes that mediate between intended lexical forms and pronounceable surface forms. It operates with universal phonological processes that are phonetically motivated and arise from the human vocal and perceptual systems. While processes are universal, their application is limited by what is learned in each language. The theory has evolved over time but maintains that phonological systems are phonetically motivated.
1. Studies of multi-word units using corpus data have shown that language is highly phraseological in nature, with the majority of texts composed of common words following common patterns.
2. Research into n-grams and other multi-word units has enhanced our understanding of language, showing that most everyday words do not have independent meanings but rather contribute to the meaning of larger lexical units.
3. The study of multi-word units has implications for applied fields like lexicography, language teaching, and English for academic/specific purposes by providing insights into typical phraseologies used in different contexts and genres.
This document discusses the nature of language and applied linguistics. It provides definitions of language from various scholars and outlines shifts in theories of language over time. A key shift was from viewing language as a system of forms to recognizing its communicative function. Applied linguistics is defined as identifying and solving language-related problems, and can be applied to areas like language teaching and learning, acquisition, assessment, and more. Linguistics contributes to education by helping teachers reshape their views of language and learning.
The document provides a broad overview of the field of linguistics, covering several topics including:
- Comparative methods and prominent linguists such as Noam Chomsky
- Subfields like phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics
- Sociolinguistics and how languages change over time
- Generative grammar and Systemic Functional Linguistics
- Semantics and pragmatics, discussing how meaning depends on context
- Linguistic typology and classifying languages by structural features
Language is a system of communication using symbols governed by rules. It involves five rule-based systems: phonology (sounds), morphology (word forms), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (appropriate use). Language develops through biological predispositions interacting with the environment, with children acquiring specific skills like multi-word sentences at different ages as they progress from infancy to adolescence.
Earlier speech language pathologists used to focus on each specific sound error in the client as a separate entity. Lately they are being urged to try and find out underlying patterns of productions that could account for several errors at one time. This recent methodology is called phonological process analysis/ phonological rule analysis, or simply, phonological analysis.
With the development in the procedures for phonological analysis, there has been a change in the focus of therapy for children and adults with speech disorders. There has-been a growing tendency to de-emphasize traditional approaches stressing on motoric manipulation of articulators in favor of more conceptually based programs. With this new approach children who have been attending therapy for many years, have been discharged in 12-18 months with phonologically based therapy. Phonological analysis is an advance in our concepts of articulation analysis; it is not the discovery of a new world. So it also can be used with disordered groups- clients with aphasia, apraxia, cleft palate, or hearing loss etc. This new methodology involves-relearning what clinicians once studied, rather than new learning of concepts.
To derive a speaker’s meaning, the listener is basically concerned with the phonemes in the speech message. Phonology is the sub-discipline of linguistics that focuses on speech sounds & sound patterns. Speech sounds refers to linguistically relevant sounds used in the formation of syllables, words & sentences.
The goal of phonology is “to study the properties of the sound systems which speakers must learn or internalize in order to use their language for communication” (Hyman, 1975). It includes:
a. Describing a sound patterns of the languages
b. Describing the organization of the speech sounds in the mind
c. Describing how languages differ from 1 another in the organization
d. Describing phonological universals- common properties shared by the various sound system of the world’s language
The SLPs is not a phonologist, although the professionals do share a common interest in the sound system of language. The SLPs, although grounded in normal language development, is concerned with the analysis & remediation of impaired language systems. Many concepts used by SLPs have their origins in the field of linguistics. For ex- concepts of phoneme, phonological processes, distinctive features, deep & surface structures & phonological rules the influence can be seen in the growth of assessment instruments making use of phonological analysis.
The document discusses the structure of English grammar. It begins with an outline breaking the discussion into parts about prescriptive vs descriptive grammar, the structure of English words, parts of speech, and phrases. The objectives are then stated as giving participants a firmer grasp of English grammar through its structural sequences, morphology, and syntax. Various concepts of grammar are then defined, including prescriptive grammar which focuses on rules and corrections, and descriptive grammar which aims to describe how a language is actually used. Transformational grammar and its relationship to deep and surface structures is explained. The differences between competence and performance are also touched on.
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Chapter 2
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compare-typologyandundiversals.pptx
1. OUTLINE
OUTLINE
• Language Universals
-Definition
-Why do language universals
exist
-Importance of language
universals
• Two Major Approaches
Taken to the Linguistic
Universals
-Universal Grammar
-Typological Universals
-Typological Universals vs.
Universal Grammar
• Language Typology
-Language Typology and
Typological Universals
• Classification of Universals
-Implicational vs. Non-
implicational
-Absolute Universals vs.
Tendencies
• Markedness
• The Accessibility Hierarchy
• Types of Typological
Universals
• Online Resources
• Critique
• Typological Universals &
SLA
• Studies focusing on
markedness
-Markedness differential
hypothesis (Eckman, 1977)
-Accessibility Hierarchy
(Keenan & Comrie, 1977)
• Universal generalizations
and Interlanguage
Grammar
• Universals as Constraints
on Interlanguage Grammar
• Universals as Strategies for
Intervention in
Interlanguage Grammar
• Functional Typology
(Aspect Hypothesis)
2.
3. Definition of Language Universals
statements of
what is possible
and impossible
in languages
(Finegan, 2011).
What is
common to all
languages (Mc
Laughlin, 1989)
LANGUAGE
UNIVERSALS
4. Why do language universals exist?
Original Language
Hypothesis
all of the languages in the world derive historically
from the same language
Universals and
Perception
languages are symptoms of how all humans
perceive the world and conduct verbal interactions
Acquisition and
Processing
Explanations
psychological explanations that have no physical
basis.
Social
Explanations
basis on cognition and others reflect the fact that
language is a social tool.
Finegan, 2011
5. Importance of Language Universals
Universals state what is possible in human language and what
is not.
They help us to understand brain and principles that govern
interpersonal communication in all cultures.
They help us to understand what in the human brain and
social organization of everyday life enables people to
communicate through language.
Finegan, 2011
6. Two Major Approaches Taken to the Linguistic
Universals
Noam Chomsky Joseph H. Greenberg
7. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY VS. UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR
Universal Grammar Language Typology
Theory driven Data driven
Abstract principles that apply to
all languages
Less abstract
Generally derived by deduction Based on readily observable data
In-depth analysis of the
properties of a language
Examination of the surface
features of a wide range of
languages
(Van Patten & Benati, 2010; McLaughlin,
1989)
8. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
Greenberg
and his
followers
analyzing data from a
representative sample of
world’s languages in order to
extract universal patternings
(McLaughlin, 1989, p. 83)
To what extent different languages are
structured according to universal
principles
9. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
The study of patterns exhibited in languages worldwide (Gass & Selinker,
2008)
A field of study in which patterns that exist among the languages of the world
are researched and the possible variation found in human languages
described (McLaughlin, 1989)
The specification
of language
universals based
on discerned
patterns
The limits define
the universals
10. LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS AND LANGUAGE
TYPOLOGY
Complementary to each other
What is
common to all
languages
Variation that
exists between
languages
Language
universals
Language
typology
11. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
«In developing a typology, researchers examine
actual representations of a particular parameter
to determine whether the various logical
possibilities are found across languages.»
(McLaughlin, 1989, p. 83)
12. 1. VSO with prepositions
2. VSO without prepositions
3. Non-VSO with prepositions
4. Non-VSO without prepositions
13. CLASSIFICATION OF UNIVERSALS
Typological
Universals
Based on the
presence of
property
Non-
implicational
universals
Implicational
universals
Based on
exceptions
Absolute
universals
Tendencies
(McLaughlin, 1989;
Comrie, 1981 as cited in
McLaughlin, 1989)
14. Non-implicational vs. Implicational Universals
Languages have vowels (Mc
Laughlin, 1989, p. 84)
Non-
implicational
Present or absent in natural languages
without reference to any other
properties of the given langauge
15. Non-implicational vs. Implicational Universals
In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost
always follows the governing noun, while in
languages with postpositions it almost always
precedes nouns (Greenberg, 1963, p. 78)
implicational
Relate the presence of one property to
the presence of some other property
16. Absolute Universals vs. Tendencies
Absolute
Universals
without exceptions
Tendencies with exceptions
17. Absolute Universals vs. Tendencies
Absolute universal/
Tendency
Non-implicational/
Implicational
All languages have vowels. Absolute Non-implicational
All languages have nasal
consonants.
Tendency
(some Salishan languages)
Non-implicational
If a language has a VSO as
its basic word order, it has
prepositions.
Absolute Implicational
If a language has SOV basic
word order, it will have
postpositions.
Tendency
(Persian is SOV with
prepositions)
Implicational
McLaughlin, 1989
18. Markedness
An observation of the implicational
relationship between categories (Mc Laughlin,
1989)
A linguistic concept related to how common
or typical a feature is (Van Patten & Benati,
2010)
19. Markedness
A B
A is more
marked than
B
Implicational
Relationships
However, it is not possible to define typological markedness on the basis
of implicational relationships, because there are no two categories, A
and B, that co-exist in the language and have an implicational
relationship. In such cases, markedness is based on frequency
(McLaughlin, 1989).
HOWEVER
20. Markedness
Something that is
more common or
ubiquitous is
considered less
marked or unmarked,
while something less
common or less
natural is considered
marked or more
marked.
Something unmarked
or less marked may
be considered as the
default form of the
feature (Van Patten &
Benati, 2010).
Markedness can be
used to make
crosslinguistic
comparisons (what
happens around the
world with
languages) or what
happens within a
single language
22. Markedness
Subject relative clause: Tom is the man who studied SLA
Object relative clause: SLA is the subject that Tom studied
Indirect object relative clause: Tom is the guy who I gave
the SLA book to
Object of preposition clause: Tom is the guy who I studied
SLA with
Genitive clause: Tom is the guy whose SLA book I borrowed
Object of comparison clause: Tom is the guy who I am taller
than
M
o
r
e
m
a
r
k
e
d
24. The Accessibility Hierarchy
• Keenan and Comrie (1977)
• An example of chain of implicational
universals:
if a language can relativize on position n, then
necessarily it can also relativize on position n-1
McLaughlin, 1989
25. The Accessibility Hierarchy
1. If a language can relativize
on a given preposition on
the Accessibility Hierarchy,
then it must be able to
relativize on all positions
higher on the hierarchy,
because a position lower
on the hierarchy cannot be
more accessible then one
higher.
2. For each position on the
Accessibility Hierarchy,
there is some possible
human language that can
relativize on that position
but on no lower position,
because each position on
the hierarchy is thought to
define a potential cut-off
point.
McLaughlin, 1989
26. The Accessibility Hierarchy
• The Accessibility Hierarchy attempts to
characterize the various types of relative
clause construction among different
languages.
• Researchers have argued that the construction
of a noun phrase for relativization depends on
its grammatical role. Van Patten & Benati, 2010
28. TYPES OF TYPOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS
Word order typology Transivity typology Syntactic typology
Word classes Voice typology Morphological
typology
Case-marking
typology
Grammatical
relations typology
Semantic typology
Person marking Typology of tense,
aspect and modality
systems
Typology of
phonological
systems
Song, 2013
29. Word order typology
In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing
noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes noun
(Greenberg, 1963)
30. Word order typology
• The leg of the table • My friend’s dog
Possessed
precedes
possessor
Preposition
follow the
noun
IMPLICATIONAL TENDENCY
31. Word order typology
• Languages with dominant verb-subject-object (VSO)
order are always prepositional (Greenberg, 1963)
Implicational absolute universal
32. Online Sources
• World Atlas of Language Structures
http://wals.info/
• The Language Index
https://languageindex.online.uni-
marburg.de/
33. CRITIQUE
• Wide range of languages
• Representative sample of human languages ->
how is one to know that the sample is
sufficiently large and varied to include
examples of all the kinds of structures found
in human languages?
34. • Even if the sample could be shown to be
representative, there remains the problem of
demonstrating the empirical validity of
putative linguistic universals
• The Notion of tendency
35. • It is undeniable that typology has been able to
produce theoretical tools in the form of
implicational generalizations, which provide
hypotheses for the description of learner
languages (Ramat, 2009)
Editor's Notes
Okay lets start with some kind of mental gymnastic with philosophy. Do you know who is this man? Who is plato?
Plato made a distinction between particular and universal. According to him particular is something specific while universal is quality that can be had by more than one specific thing at a time
He found out that many particular things can belong to one and the same species or have one and the same nature, kind, type, essence. If they belong to one and same thing they have an universal quality.
For example, there are many particular trees such as oak, palm, apple, orange etc but in the end they all are trees.
So, what comes to your mind when we say language universals?
Language universals are statements of what is possible and impossible in languages.
the features that are common to all human languages in the world
Acquisition and Processing Explanations: such as word order are necessary because it makes it easier for the child to acquire language.
Social Explanations: For example there are 1st and 2nd person pronouns as default, this is because language is used by two people during face-to-face cognition.
language universals are of an important value in the study of language
There have been a number of different approaches taken to the study of linguistic universals in second language research
Scholars examine how a language behaves and then posit generalizations that can later be checked against other languages
Surveying worlds’ languages and then arriving at a conclusion about what might constitute a universal
Greenberg and his followers begins by
There is a general agreement among linguists that language universals exist but the question is…
Typological universals tries to answer this question but there are limitations of this approach which i will mention at the end of my presentation
Typological universals stems from the study of the patterns exhibited in languages worldwide
The specification of language universals is based on discerned patterns in this variation, the limits of variation defining the universals
Thus, the study of language universals and the study of language typology are complementary to reach other.
The study of universals focuses on what is common to all languages and the study of typology focuses on the variation that exist between languages
The complementarity between the study of language universals and the study of language typology can be illustrated by an example.
Let’s take a look at Greenberg’s universal
There are four logical possibilities
In the figure there are languages that fall into first, third and fourth categories. But there are no languages in the second category. Thus, the typological endevour – aimed at assigning languages to different types – leads to the establishment of a universal.
There have been a number of classification purposed for universals but the most common ones are based on the presence of the property and based on exceptions
No reference is made to any other properties that must or must not be present
Nonimplicational and implicational universals may be absolute universals or tendencies
An important concept related to the implicational relationship is markedness. Markedness is
Whenever the existence of a category A in a language implies the existence of category B, A is considered more marked that B.
However, it is not possible to define typological markedness on the basis of implicational relationships, because there are no two categories, A and B, that co-exist in the language and have an implicational relationship. In such cases, markedness is based on frequency (McLaughlin, 1989).
In the world’s languages, there are relative clauses such as Tom is the man who studies SLA, with who studies SLA as the relative clause. There are various types of relative clauses depending on the relationship of the relative marker to the verb
According to survey of world languages, subject relative clauses are the most common and are the least marked. Object of comparisons are the least common and are the most marked
Recent work on language universals has uncovered a number of areas where one property can be described as more marked than some other property. One that is particularly relevant to research on second language learning is the Accessibility Hierarchy for relativization proposed by Keenan and Comrie
They argued on cross-linguistic grounds that the degree of difficulty of relativizing on a particular noun phrase proceeds from top to bottom along the hierarchy in table
Thus subjects are predicted to be easier to relativize than direct objects and so on down the hierarchy.
There are two sub-parts to the hypothesis
The noun phrase accessibility hierarchy indicates that the easiest relative clause construction is when the relative pronoun is the subject of relative clause. A specific hierarchy is proposed:
These sentences show that the focus of attention in the noun phrase accessibility hierarchy is on the grammatical role of the relative pronoun no matter the role taken by thr head noun in the main clause
In languages with prepositions such as french, russian, italian noun representing what is being possessed preceding the possessor
In languages with postpositions such as turkish, prepositions follow the noun
English is somewhat exceptional in that it allows not only the predicted order but also the unpredicted Word order