The document provides information about coconut including:
- Coconut is known as the tree of life and each part is useful. It is an important crop for over 1 crore people.
- The composition of coconut water includes 95.5% water, 0.1% protein, and minerals like calcium and iron. Coconut kernel is a rich source of vegetable fat yielding 60-67% oil.
- Major coconut growing countries include Philippines, Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka. The major coconut growing states in India are Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
This document provides information about coconut production in India. It discusses that India ranks third globally in coconut production after Indonesia and Philippines, with over 10 million tons produced annually on 1.5 million hectares of land. Kerala contributes the highest share of coconut production in India at 45% followed by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The document also outlines coconut cultivation practices including variety, planting methods, fertilizer use, pest and disease management, and harvesting.
The document discusses coconut breeding and improvement. It describes the classification of coconut varieties into tall and dwarf types based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization techniques are used for coconut breeding. Important hybrid combinations tried include dwarf x dwarf, tall x dwarf, and tall x tall crosses. Tall x dwarf hybrids exhibit heterosis and possess desirable traits like early bearing and higher productivity.
This document provides information on coconut production technology. It discusses the origin of coconut, major producing regions, varieties, climate and soil requirements, planting methods, management practices including irrigation, fertilization, intercropping. It also describes pests, diseases, harvesting, yield, post-harvest processing of copra, and value-added products from coconut. The key points covered are that coconut is considered an important crop that provides many necessities, Kerala is the top producing state in India, and proper selection of planting material, site, and management is required for successful coconut cultivation.
Tea is made from steeping the leaves of Camellia sinensis in hot water. It was discovered in 2737 BCE in China and is the second most consumed beverage worldwide. Tea contains substances like caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline that have stimulatory effects. Tea processing involves withering, rolling, oxidation/fermentation, fixation, drying, cleaning, grading, and packaging. The key steps are withering to remove moisture, rolling to promote oxidation, oxidation to develop flavor, and drying to stop oxidation. Tea has a variety of health benefits like antioxidant effects and reduced risk of heart disease, cancer, and memory loss.
Essential oil extraction methods of aromatic cropsAnkush Singh
This document discusses essential oil extraction methods from aromatic crops. It describes six main methods: steam distillation, water distillation, expression, solvent extraction, maceration, and enfluerage. Steam distillation involves using steam to open oil pockets in plant material and collecting the oils through condensation. Solvent extraction uses solvents like ethanol or n-hexane to extract oils at room temperature from seeds. Maceration gently heats plant material in melted fat to absorb and extract volatile oils.
COMMERCIAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS IN CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWERAdhiyamaan Raj
This document provides information on various cabbage and cauliflower varieties grown in India. For cabbage, it discusses early, mid-season and late varieties and their characteristics like Golden Acre, Late Drum Head, Pusa Drum Head. For cauliflower, it outlines varieties categorized by season including early, mid-early and mid-late varieties like Early Kunwari, Pusa Deepali, Pusa Sharad and their key traits. It also shares details on hybrid varieties of both crops and their advantages.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESSING OF CASHEWPourani SGM
This document provides information on cashew production technology and processing. It discusses the origin, cultivation, varieties, propagation, management practices, pests, and processing of cashews. Key points include that cashews are native to Brazil but introduced to India in the 16th century, India is the second largest producer after Vietnam, and the major uses of cashews include their nutritional value as well as industrial uses of cashew nut shell liquid.
This document provides information on several medicinal and aromatic plants including lemongrass, eucalyptus, basil, and long pepper. It describes their systematic position, species, varieties, uses of essential oils, and important breeding programs. The lemongrass section provides details on four main Cymbopogon species and nine popular varieties cultivated in India. Eucalyptus citriodora and E. globulus are outlined as the most common eucalyptus species grown. Sweet basil and holy basil are highlighted among the Ocimum genus, and eleven of their varieties are listed. Lastly, long pepper is native to South Asia and its spikes and roots contain medicinal alkaloids.
This document provides information about coconut production in India. It discusses that India ranks third globally in coconut production after Indonesia and Philippines, with over 10 million tons produced annually on 1.5 million hectares of land. Kerala contributes the highest share of coconut production in India at 45% followed by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The document also outlines coconut cultivation practices including variety, planting methods, fertilizer use, pest and disease management, and harvesting.
The document discusses coconut breeding and improvement. It describes the classification of coconut varieties into tall and dwarf types based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization techniques are used for coconut breeding. Important hybrid combinations tried include dwarf x dwarf, tall x dwarf, and tall x tall crosses. Tall x dwarf hybrids exhibit heterosis and possess desirable traits like early bearing and higher productivity.
This document provides information on coconut production technology. It discusses the origin of coconut, major producing regions, varieties, climate and soil requirements, planting methods, management practices including irrigation, fertilization, intercropping. It also describes pests, diseases, harvesting, yield, post-harvest processing of copra, and value-added products from coconut. The key points covered are that coconut is considered an important crop that provides many necessities, Kerala is the top producing state in India, and proper selection of planting material, site, and management is required for successful coconut cultivation.
Tea is made from steeping the leaves of Camellia sinensis in hot water. It was discovered in 2737 BCE in China and is the second most consumed beverage worldwide. Tea contains substances like caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline that have stimulatory effects. Tea processing involves withering, rolling, oxidation/fermentation, fixation, drying, cleaning, grading, and packaging. The key steps are withering to remove moisture, rolling to promote oxidation, oxidation to develop flavor, and drying to stop oxidation. Tea has a variety of health benefits like antioxidant effects and reduced risk of heart disease, cancer, and memory loss.
Essential oil extraction methods of aromatic cropsAnkush Singh
This document discusses essential oil extraction methods from aromatic crops. It describes six main methods: steam distillation, water distillation, expression, solvent extraction, maceration, and enfluerage. Steam distillation involves using steam to open oil pockets in plant material and collecting the oils through condensation. Solvent extraction uses solvents like ethanol or n-hexane to extract oils at room temperature from seeds. Maceration gently heats plant material in melted fat to absorb and extract volatile oils.
COMMERCIAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS IN CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWERAdhiyamaan Raj
This document provides information on various cabbage and cauliflower varieties grown in India. For cabbage, it discusses early, mid-season and late varieties and their characteristics like Golden Acre, Late Drum Head, Pusa Drum Head. For cauliflower, it outlines varieties categorized by season including early, mid-early and mid-late varieties like Early Kunwari, Pusa Deepali, Pusa Sharad and their key traits. It also shares details on hybrid varieties of both crops and their advantages.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESSING OF CASHEWPourani SGM
This document provides information on cashew production technology and processing. It discusses the origin, cultivation, varieties, propagation, management practices, pests, and processing of cashews. Key points include that cashews are native to Brazil but introduced to India in the 16th century, India is the second largest producer after Vietnam, and the major uses of cashews include their nutritional value as well as industrial uses of cashew nut shell liquid.
This document provides information on several medicinal and aromatic plants including lemongrass, eucalyptus, basil, and long pepper. It describes their systematic position, species, varieties, uses of essential oils, and important breeding programs. The lemongrass section provides details on four main Cymbopogon species and nine popular varieties cultivated in India. Eucalyptus citriodora and E. globulus are outlined as the most common eucalyptus species grown. Sweet basil and holy basil are highlighted among the Ocimum genus, and eleven of their varieties are listed. Lastly, long pepper is native to South Asia and its spikes and roots contain medicinal alkaloids.
Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) is a herbaceous plant native to Madagascar that is cultivated for its medicinal properties. It contains over 100 alkaloids, notably vinblastine and vincristine in its leaves which are important in cancer therapy. It is grown in tropical and subtropical regions with adequate rainfall. Propagation is through seeds sown directly or in a nursery, and through cuttings. Leaves are harvested twice and roots after one year. Yields of 4 tons/ha of leaves and 1.5 tons/ha each of stems and roots can be obtained under irrigation.
Vetiver is a perennial grass native to tropical and subtropical Asia that is cultivated for its roots, which are used to produce essential oil. It can grow in a variety of soils and climates. Propagation is typically through slips rather than seeds. Planting occurs in June-August at spacings of 60x30-60x60 cm, and crops are harvested after 15-24 months. Root yields vary based on soil type but can be 2-2.5 tonnes/ha in sandy loam soils, producing 0.15-1% essential oil. The oil is extracted through distillation and has various agricultural, industrial, and medicinal uses.
Bael (Aegle marmelos) is a native fruit tree of India commonly found in temple gardens. It has wide adaptability and can grow in subtropical climates with hot, dry summers and mild winters up to 1200m elevation. Popular varieties include Narendra bael-5, Pant Shivani, and Goma Yashi. Bael trees are planted at 8-10m spacing and produce 30-45 fruits at 6-7 years old, yielding 500-800 fruits at 30-40 years. Pests include termites and caterpillars while diseases include fruit rot. Fruits are used to make toffee, squash, powder, jam and more.
Mentha (mint) is a genus of plants that includes several commercially important species. The document discusses the cultivation of four mint species - Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis), peppermint (M. piperita), spearmint (M. spicata), and bergamot mint (M. citrata). It provides details on the origin, distribution, chemical composition, uses, seasons, soil requirements, climate needs, land preparation, cultivation practices, fertilizer use, irrigation, weed control, crop rotation, harvesting, and yields for each species. The optimal growing conditions and harvesting times vary depending on whether the mint is grown in tropical, subtropical, or temperate regions.
Jasmine- introduction and uses – varieties - soil and climate and planting systems - weed, nutrition and irrigation management – training and pruning – special horticultural practices - role of growth regulators- harvest index and yield
The document discusses various plantation crops grown in India including their processing methods. It provides area and production statistics for major crops like coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, tea, and coffee. For coconut, it describes the components and different processing steps to produce copra, coconut oil, and other products. Similar processing details are provided for arecanut and case studies on drying coconut kernels and developing a arecanut dehusking machine. Processing of palm products like neera, toddy and jaggery are also summarized along with a case study on palm jaggery preparation. The document concludes with a brief overview of tea processing steps.
This document provides information on pineapple production including:
- Pineapple varieties commonly grown in India include Giant Kew, Kew, Queen, Mauritius, and Jaldhup. Varieties are classified into Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish groups.
- Pineapples prefer tropical climates with temperatures between 21-23°C, rainfall of 150cm, and sandy loam soils with pH 5.5-6.0.
- Propagation is mainly through vegetative methods using suckers, slips, crowns, and stem bits. Planting follows a double row system with spacing of 60cm between rows and 45cm within rows.
- Standard agronomic practices like weeding, mul
This document provides information on strawberry production, including:
- Strawberries are a herbaceous plant cultivated for its fruit, which is rich in vitamin C and iron. The top producers are the United States, Turkey, and Spain.
- Ideal conditions for cultivation include a temperate climate, acidic soil, and planting from September to October for maximum growth.
- Popular varieties include Chandler, Tioga, and Torrey, which produce large, firm berries tolerant of disease. Proper spacing, fertilization, irrigation, and pest management are required.
- Strawberries are harvested from May to June when three-fourths of the fruit is red, and yields average 45-100 quintals per hect
importance of production of cashew. it includes about botany, all varities. cotains all cimatic and soil requirement of the crop. also contais different methods of propogation, cultivation ascpects and processig aspects.
This document provides information on the cultivation of vetiver. It describes the plant characteristics, major production areas, suitable varieties, and cultivation methods such as soil and climate requirements, propagation, planting, fertilization, irrigation, and pest and disease management. The optimal harvesting time is listed as 18 months after planting when the roots and oil yield are highest and the oil quality is best. The harvested roots are processed by separating, washing, chopping, and shade drying before distillation to extract the essential oil.
This document discusses safflower, including its origin, characteristics, production levels in India, and economic uses. It provides details on:
- India ranks first in area and production of safflower globally, with Maharashtra producing the most.
- Safflower is tolerant to salinity but sensitive to waterlogging, and is grown as a rabi crop. It is a good option for dryland farming.
- The oil contains high levels of linoleic acid and is used to make soaps, varnishes, and for heart health.
- Tables show optimal yields are obtained with 3 irrigations, at rosette stage, branching, and seed development. Intercropping with chickpe
This document provides information on the production technology of watermelon. It discusses the origin and varieties of watermelon including Sugar Baby, Asahi Yamato, Pusa Bedana, and Arka varieties. It also outlines soil preparation, sowing methods, fertilizer use, pruning, weed and water management, and harvesting. Key requirements are warm weather, well-drained soil, and regular irrigation. Yields average 200-250 quintals per hectare for varieties and 300-400 quintals for hybrids.
Advanced production technology of almondPawan Nagar
This document provides information on advanced production technology for almond crops. It discusses the taxonomy, origin, nutritional importance, varieties, climate and soil requirements, propagation methods, planting, training, pruning, pollination management and other cultivation practices for almond. The key varieties grown are Non Pareil, California Paper Shell, IXL and Merced. Proper training, pruning, irrigation, and ensuring at least 33% of plants are pollinizer varieties is important for high yields.
Pigeon pea is an important crop that originated in India. It is grown for its edible seeds which are high in protein, and its leaves, shoots and fodder which are used for animal feed. The major growing regions are India, East Africa, and the Caribbean. Pigeon pea has a taproot system and trifoliate leaves. Its flowers form in axillary racemes and are self-pollinated. The pods contain 2-5 seeds that vary in size, shape and color. Traditional self-pollination and cross-pollination techniques involve emasculating flowers and manually transferring pollen.
Seed classes include nucleus, breeder, foundation, registered, and certified seeds. Nucleus seed is obtained from healthy plants in isolation and has the highest genetic purity of around 100%. Breeder seed is produced under supervision from nucleus seed and is used to produce foundation seed, which is genetically 99.9% pure. Foundation seed is the source of registered and certified seeds, and is produced on government farms under research supervision with a white tag. Certified seed is the progeny of foundation, registered, or certified seed itself and is approved and distributed to farmers with an azora blue tag.
This document summarizes the cultivation practices of tuberose. It describes the botanical details of tuberose and discusses propagation through bulbs or bulb segments. Ideal growing conditions including climate, soil type, and spacing are outlined. The document also covers cultivation processes such as site selection, soil preparation, planting, irrigation, fertilization, pest and disease management, harvesting, post-harvest handling, and yield. Common tuberose varieties grown for their fragrance in cut flowers and essential oils are also mentioned.
- The document discusses banana cultivation, including its botanical classification as Musa sp. and originating from Southeast Asia.
- It provides information on major banana producing states in India like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Optimal growing conditions and important cultivars are also mentioned.
- Cultural practices for banana cultivation are outlined, including land preparation, planting, spacing, fertilizer application, intercropping, and pest and disease management.
The document outlines India's systematic seed production program, which involves four generations of seed multiplication - nucleus, breeder, foundation, and certified seed - each with progressively larger quantities and lower genetic purity standards. Nucleus seed comes directly from the original variety and is used for breeder seed production. Breeder seed is the first stage of large-scale multiplication and is used for foundation seed production. Foundation seed is certified and used for the production of certified seed, which is for commercial cultivation. Truthfully labeled seed is not certified but must meet quality standards.
This document discusses the arecanut (betel nut) crop. It provides details on:
1) India is the largest producer of arecanuts, with major cultivating states being Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal.
2) Traditionally, arecanuts were harvested by trained climbers, but mechanized harvesters are now used which do not require expertise and allow women and youth to participate.
3) After harvesting, the nuts undergo various processing steps to produce different products like raw nuts, dried nuts (chali/kottapak), and flavored nuts (scented supari). Sundrying and mechanical drying are common methods used.
systematics and production technology of cowpeaAvisha Budhani
This document provides an overview of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including its:
- Origin in Central Africa
- Classification within the plant kingdom and Fabaceae family
- Major subspecies cultivated, including V. unguiculata, V. cylindrica, and V. sesquipedalis
- Importance as a drought-resistant pulse crop grown in Africa and other warm regions
- Uses of mature seeds as a pulse and immature pods as a vegetable
The document provides information about coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), including its classification, origin, cultivation, varieties, breeding methods, and hybridization. It notes that coconut palm is widely cultivated in tropical regions and classified into tall and dwarf varieties based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization, particularly tall x dwarf crosses, have been used in coconut breeding to develop high-yielding varieties that exhibit heterosis.
The document provides information about coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), including its classification, origin, cultivation, varieties, breeding methods, and hybridization. It notes that coconut palm is widely cultivated in tropical regions and classified into tall and dwarf varieties based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization, particularly tall x dwarf crosses, have been used in coconut breeding to develop high-yielding varieties that exhibit heterosis.
Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) is a herbaceous plant native to Madagascar that is cultivated for its medicinal properties. It contains over 100 alkaloids, notably vinblastine and vincristine in its leaves which are important in cancer therapy. It is grown in tropical and subtropical regions with adequate rainfall. Propagation is through seeds sown directly or in a nursery, and through cuttings. Leaves are harvested twice and roots after one year. Yields of 4 tons/ha of leaves and 1.5 tons/ha each of stems and roots can be obtained under irrigation.
Vetiver is a perennial grass native to tropical and subtropical Asia that is cultivated for its roots, which are used to produce essential oil. It can grow in a variety of soils and climates. Propagation is typically through slips rather than seeds. Planting occurs in June-August at spacings of 60x30-60x60 cm, and crops are harvested after 15-24 months. Root yields vary based on soil type but can be 2-2.5 tonnes/ha in sandy loam soils, producing 0.15-1% essential oil. The oil is extracted through distillation and has various agricultural, industrial, and medicinal uses.
Bael (Aegle marmelos) is a native fruit tree of India commonly found in temple gardens. It has wide adaptability and can grow in subtropical climates with hot, dry summers and mild winters up to 1200m elevation. Popular varieties include Narendra bael-5, Pant Shivani, and Goma Yashi. Bael trees are planted at 8-10m spacing and produce 30-45 fruits at 6-7 years old, yielding 500-800 fruits at 30-40 years. Pests include termites and caterpillars while diseases include fruit rot. Fruits are used to make toffee, squash, powder, jam and more.
Mentha (mint) is a genus of plants that includes several commercially important species. The document discusses the cultivation of four mint species - Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis), peppermint (M. piperita), spearmint (M. spicata), and bergamot mint (M. citrata). It provides details on the origin, distribution, chemical composition, uses, seasons, soil requirements, climate needs, land preparation, cultivation practices, fertilizer use, irrigation, weed control, crop rotation, harvesting, and yields for each species. The optimal growing conditions and harvesting times vary depending on whether the mint is grown in tropical, subtropical, or temperate regions.
Jasmine- introduction and uses – varieties - soil and climate and planting systems - weed, nutrition and irrigation management – training and pruning – special horticultural practices - role of growth regulators- harvest index and yield
The document discusses various plantation crops grown in India including their processing methods. It provides area and production statistics for major crops like coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, tea, and coffee. For coconut, it describes the components and different processing steps to produce copra, coconut oil, and other products. Similar processing details are provided for arecanut and case studies on drying coconut kernels and developing a arecanut dehusking machine. Processing of palm products like neera, toddy and jaggery are also summarized along with a case study on palm jaggery preparation. The document concludes with a brief overview of tea processing steps.
This document provides information on pineapple production including:
- Pineapple varieties commonly grown in India include Giant Kew, Kew, Queen, Mauritius, and Jaldhup. Varieties are classified into Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish groups.
- Pineapples prefer tropical climates with temperatures between 21-23°C, rainfall of 150cm, and sandy loam soils with pH 5.5-6.0.
- Propagation is mainly through vegetative methods using suckers, slips, crowns, and stem bits. Planting follows a double row system with spacing of 60cm between rows and 45cm within rows.
- Standard agronomic practices like weeding, mul
This document provides information on strawberry production, including:
- Strawberries are a herbaceous plant cultivated for its fruit, which is rich in vitamin C and iron. The top producers are the United States, Turkey, and Spain.
- Ideal conditions for cultivation include a temperate climate, acidic soil, and planting from September to October for maximum growth.
- Popular varieties include Chandler, Tioga, and Torrey, which produce large, firm berries tolerant of disease. Proper spacing, fertilization, irrigation, and pest management are required.
- Strawberries are harvested from May to June when three-fourths of the fruit is red, and yields average 45-100 quintals per hect
importance of production of cashew. it includes about botany, all varities. cotains all cimatic and soil requirement of the crop. also contais different methods of propogation, cultivation ascpects and processig aspects.
This document provides information on the cultivation of vetiver. It describes the plant characteristics, major production areas, suitable varieties, and cultivation methods such as soil and climate requirements, propagation, planting, fertilization, irrigation, and pest and disease management. The optimal harvesting time is listed as 18 months after planting when the roots and oil yield are highest and the oil quality is best. The harvested roots are processed by separating, washing, chopping, and shade drying before distillation to extract the essential oil.
This document discusses safflower, including its origin, characteristics, production levels in India, and economic uses. It provides details on:
- India ranks first in area and production of safflower globally, with Maharashtra producing the most.
- Safflower is tolerant to salinity but sensitive to waterlogging, and is grown as a rabi crop. It is a good option for dryland farming.
- The oil contains high levels of linoleic acid and is used to make soaps, varnishes, and for heart health.
- Tables show optimal yields are obtained with 3 irrigations, at rosette stage, branching, and seed development. Intercropping with chickpe
This document provides information on the production technology of watermelon. It discusses the origin and varieties of watermelon including Sugar Baby, Asahi Yamato, Pusa Bedana, and Arka varieties. It also outlines soil preparation, sowing methods, fertilizer use, pruning, weed and water management, and harvesting. Key requirements are warm weather, well-drained soil, and regular irrigation. Yields average 200-250 quintals per hectare for varieties and 300-400 quintals for hybrids.
Advanced production technology of almondPawan Nagar
This document provides information on advanced production technology for almond crops. It discusses the taxonomy, origin, nutritional importance, varieties, climate and soil requirements, propagation methods, planting, training, pruning, pollination management and other cultivation practices for almond. The key varieties grown are Non Pareil, California Paper Shell, IXL and Merced. Proper training, pruning, irrigation, and ensuring at least 33% of plants are pollinizer varieties is important for high yields.
Pigeon pea is an important crop that originated in India. It is grown for its edible seeds which are high in protein, and its leaves, shoots and fodder which are used for animal feed. The major growing regions are India, East Africa, and the Caribbean. Pigeon pea has a taproot system and trifoliate leaves. Its flowers form in axillary racemes and are self-pollinated. The pods contain 2-5 seeds that vary in size, shape and color. Traditional self-pollination and cross-pollination techniques involve emasculating flowers and manually transferring pollen.
Seed classes include nucleus, breeder, foundation, registered, and certified seeds. Nucleus seed is obtained from healthy plants in isolation and has the highest genetic purity of around 100%. Breeder seed is produced under supervision from nucleus seed and is used to produce foundation seed, which is genetically 99.9% pure. Foundation seed is the source of registered and certified seeds, and is produced on government farms under research supervision with a white tag. Certified seed is the progeny of foundation, registered, or certified seed itself and is approved and distributed to farmers with an azora blue tag.
This document summarizes the cultivation practices of tuberose. It describes the botanical details of tuberose and discusses propagation through bulbs or bulb segments. Ideal growing conditions including climate, soil type, and spacing are outlined. The document also covers cultivation processes such as site selection, soil preparation, planting, irrigation, fertilization, pest and disease management, harvesting, post-harvest handling, and yield. Common tuberose varieties grown for their fragrance in cut flowers and essential oils are also mentioned.
- The document discusses banana cultivation, including its botanical classification as Musa sp. and originating from Southeast Asia.
- It provides information on major banana producing states in India like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Optimal growing conditions and important cultivars are also mentioned.
- Cultural practices for banana cultivation are outlined, including land preparation, planting, spacing, fertilizer application, intercropping, and pest and disease management.
The document outlines India's systematic seed production program, which involves four generations of seed multiplication - nucleus, breeder, foundation, and certified seed - each with progressively larger quantities and lower genetic purity standards. Nucleus seed comes directly from the original variety and is used for breeder seed production. Breeder seed is the first stage of large-scale multiplication and is used for foundation seed production. Foundation seed is certified and used for the production of certified seed, which is for commercial cultivation. Truthfully labeled seed is not certified but must meet quality standards.
This document discusses the arecanut (betel nut) crop. It provides details on:
1) India is the largest producer of arecanuts, with major cultivating states being Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal.
2) Traditionally, arecanuts were harvested by trained climbers, but mechanized harvesters are now used which do not require expertise and allow women and youth to participate.
3) After harvesting, the nuts undergo various processing steps to produce different products like raw nuts, dried nuts (chali/kottapak), and flavored nuts (scented supari). Sundrying and mechanical drying are common methods used.
systematics and production technology of cowpeaAvisha Budhani
This document provides an overview of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including its:
- Origin in Central Africa
- Classification within the plant kingdom and Fabaceae family
- Major subspecies cultivated, including V. unguiculata, V. cylindrica, and V. sesquipedalis
- Importance as a drought-resistant pulse crop grown in Africa and other warm regions
- Uses of mature seeds as a pulse and immature pods as a vegetable
The document provides information about coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), including its classification, origin, cultivation, varieties, breeding methods, and hybridization. It notes that coconut palm is widely cultivated in tropical regions and classified into tall and dwarf varieties based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization, particularly tall x dwarf crosses, have been used in coconut breeding to develop high-yielding varieties that exhibit heterosis.
The document provides information about coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), including its classification, origin, cultivation, varieties, breeding methods, and hybridization. It notes that coconut palm is widely cultivated in tropical regions and classified into tall and dwarf varieties based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization, particularly tall x dwarf crosses, have been used in coconut breeding to develop high-yielding varieties that exhibit heterosis.
This document discusses the floral biology and breeding of coconut. It begins by outlining the taxonomic classification of coconut and describing its origin and worldwide distribution. It then covers the plant's morphology and uses. The document details coconut's floral biology, pollination process, and fruit development. It concludes by explaining coconut breeding methods, including introduction, selection, and hybridization approaches. Mass selection of superior mother palms based on traits like yield, age, leaf and flower characteristics, and nut size and shape is emphasized.
This case study describes a coconut breeding program in Vanuatu that aimed to develop varieties tolerant to Coconut Fatal Disease (CFD). The program crossed the local Vanuatu Tall variety with the introduced Rennell Island Tall variety. Offspring were screened for CFD tolerance and the least susceptible were self-pollinated and backcrossed to Vanuatu Tall to introgress tolerance. Selected self-pollinated Rennell Island Tall were also intercrossed in an effort to build tolerance into the local germplasm. The goal was to genetically determine the mechanism of CFD tolerance and develop varieties tolerant to the disease before it potentially spreads further.
CROP IMROVEMENT AND RECENT ADVANCES IN SAPOTApraveen choyal
This document summarizes a presentation on crop improvement and recent advances in sapota. It begins with an introduction to sapota, providing its common name, botanical name, family, chromosome number, origin, and edible part. It then discusses the basic information, important uses, constituents, nutritive value, present scenario, breeding objectives, center of diversity, botany, floral biology, morphology of flowers, selected varieties, hybrid varieties, distribution of cultivars in India, important varieties, future thrust, and concludes with thanks. The key points covered include sapota's origin in Mexico and Central America, commercial cultivation beginning in India in 1898, inarching being the main propagation method, and India being a major global
The potential of_moringa_oleifera_for_agricultural_and_industrial_usesSilentdisco Berlin
Moringa is a plantfood of high nutritional value, ecologically and economically beneficial and readily available in the countries hardest hit by the food crisis. http://miracletrees.org/ http://moringatrees.org/
@Wood apple,Bael,Aegle marmelos and its cultivation intro and its medicinal v...Saimon Pankaj
@Medicinal values of wood apple,,Introduction,habitat,varietal selection,planting pattern,flowering and fruiting,production,harvesting and other research article proofs on medicinal values of wood apple in several diseases like cancer,stomach disorder ,blood purifier,Antimicrobial,anti pyre tic property and many more.....
This document provides an overview of cashew cultivation. It discusses the botany of cashew trees, including characteristics, varieties, soil and climate requirements. It also covers propagation methods like seed propagation and vegetative propagation through grafting. Details are given on rootstock and scion selection, grafting techniques, and maintenance of grafts. Other topics include planting, intercropping, training, disease and pest management, harvesting, grading, and post-harvest activities.
Cardamom, known as "Queen of Spices", is indigenous to South India and has been cultivated there since ancient times. It is now also grown in other tropical countries. The major producers are India, Guatemala, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tanzania and Cambodia. In India, the major producing states are Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Several cultivars have been developed with varying characteristics such as plant height, leaf and capsule shape, color, and yield. Breeding objectives include developing high yielding varieties with good quality and resistance to pests and diseases.
The potential of_moringa_oleifera_for_agricultural_and_industrial_usesDrumstick Moringa
This document provides information on the potential uses of Moringa oleifera products. It discusses the morphology and physical characteristics of Moringa, as well as its socio-economic importance. The document then outlines the various uses of Moringa parts, including using the leaves, pods, seeds, and seed oil for human consumption. It also discusses using Moringa seeds for water purification and industrial uses of Moringa seed oil.
The tree in my school presentation was given by the Eagle Group about several trees found on the school grounds, including a damask rose, ebony tree, rose apple tree, orchid tree, palm tree, jungle flame, ferns, and she oak trees. The presentation included the name, scientific name, description, benefits, and location of each tree. It was presented by the Eagle Group members led by Nutthawut Likitthangtham.
This document provides information about the growth and development of sugarcane plants. It describes the key growth phases including germination and establishment, which takes 30-35 days as buds sprout. The tillering phase follows, lasting 120 days, as underground branching produces additional stalks. The document also details sugarcane plant morphology such as propagation from setts, leaves, roots, stalk development and flowering. It provides context on global sugarcane production.
This document provides an overview of sugarcane growth morphology. It describes how sugarcane propagates through stem cuttings called setts that contain buds. It details the structure of sugarcane leaves, stalks, and root systems. When conditions are right, the growing point can change to produce an inflorescence. The root system initially develops sett roots from the nodes, followed by thicker shoot roots that become the primary root system.
This document provides information about the nutmeg plant Myristica fragrance. Key points include:
- Nutmeg produces two spices, nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is the dried kernel and mace is the dried aril surrounding it.
- Major producers include Indonesia and Grenada. In India it is cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
- Breeding objectives include developing high yielding varieties with bold fruits and nuts that are resistant to diseases.
- Several improved varieties have been developed through selection and hybridization including IISR Viswashree and Konkan Shrimanti.
Spine gourd, popularly known as kankad and kartoli.
Its vines are annual. The crop planted, once will give yield at least three to four years or so.
The tubers are left in situ and they over winter.
Spine gourd is underutilized vegetables of high nutritional, medicinal and economic value.
PLANTS FOR RIPARIAN BUFFER FOR BANGLADESHRiday Saha
The document describes 10 plant species that are suitable for riparian buffers in Bangladesh. It provides the binomial name, native name, and key characteristics of each species. The plants included are Samanea saman (raintree), Swietenia mahagoni (mahogany), Mangifera indica (mango), Cocos nucifera (coconut), Lagerstroemia speciosa (jarul), Areca catechu (supari), Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit), Acacia auriculiformis (akashmoni), Albizia lebbeck (kalo koroi), and Albizia procera (sada k
This document provides information about rice (Oryza sativa L.), including its botanical name, family, chromosome number, production levels worldwide and in key countries/states, uses, nutritional content, historical research and development, and important varieties. It discusses rice's origin in Asia, classification into two cultivated species (O. sativa and O. glaberrima), and subdivision of O. sativa into three subspecies based on geographic adaptation and morphology. Major stages of rice growth and development are also outlined.
This document provides information on sugarcane, including its taxonomy, morphology, propagation, cultivation practices, pests and diseases, harvesting, and by-products. Sugarcane is a grass belonging to the genus Saccharum. It has thick stalks that are the main commercial source of sugar. The document describes the taxonomy of sugarcane, the morphology of its stalks, leaves, roots, and propagation through stem cuttings. It discusses soil preparation, sett treatment, fertilization, pests like borers and mealybugs, and diseases like red rot. Harvesting methods include manual and mechanical harvesting. By-products include raw sugar, juices, syrup and molasses.
This document provides information on pests that affect brinjal (eggplant) crops. It discusses several major insect pests including the Epilachna beetle, brinjal shoot and fruit borer, brinjal stem borer, brinjal mealybug, brinjal aphids, brinjal little leaf, brinjal lacewing bug, brinjal leaf webber, and brinjal mite. For each pest, it provides details on the pest name, taxonomic classification, symptoms they cause, and images of the pests or damage. The document was created by the Division of Computer Applications at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute.
This document discusses climate regulation techniques in greenhouses. It describes controlling temperature, relative humidity, light, carbon dioxide, and other environmental factors to optimize plant growth. Methods covered include ventilation (natural and forced), shading, cooling systems (evaporative pads, fog/mist), heating (unit heaters, pipes), solar radiation filtration, air circulation, CO2 enrichment, and lighting (LED, fluorescent, halide). The goal is maintaining suitable conditions for photosynthesis, transpiration, and plant development.
This document describes two methods for determining available micronutrients in soil: colorimetric and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). It focuses on the AAS method using diethylene triamine penta acetic acid (DTPA) extractant at pH 7.3 to extract available iron, manganese, zinc and copper. The extracted elements are then measured using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Standards are prepared and used to create calibration curves to determine micronutrient concentrations in samples. Critical limits for each micronutrient are provided below which deficiency may occur.
Ecology and Pest Management discusses the importance of understanding pest populations and the factors that influence them for effective integrated pest management (IPM). Key points:
- Biotic and abiotic factors like temperature, humidity, food availability, and natural enemies influence pest population levels. Monitoring these factors is important for predicting population changes.
- IPM utilizes cultural, mechanical, physical, biological and chemical control methods, with the goal of preventing economic damage while minimizing risks to the environment.
- Pest surveillance and forecasting through monitoring and data collection over time allows for timely control responses before populations reach economic injury levels. Understanding a pest's ecology is essential for IPM.
This document lists and provides brief descriptions of several medicinal plants and substances. It discusses plants such as ashwagandha, belladonna, periwinkle, ipecac, and piper species. It also mentions substances like guggul, aloe, forskohlii, senna, opium poppy, taxus, and ginseng. For some it provides the plant family and uses such as treatment of heart conditions, tumors, asthma, and as an aphrodisiac or sedative. Active chemical compounds are identified for some plants like foxglove and ephedra.
Microorganisms play an important role in soil ecosystems by breaking down organic matter, carrying out nutrient cycles, and increasing soil fertility. The major microbial groups found in soil include bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and protozoa. Each group varies in size, characteristics, and significance. For example, bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter and carry out nutrient cycles, while actinomycetes and algae are important for composting and producing antibiotics or pigments. Overall, soil microorganisms are essential for maintaining soil quality and productivity.
This document provides an outline and overview of AutoCAD, a commercial 2D and 3D computer-aided design software. It discusses AutoCAD's history and development since 1982, how to use basic drawing tools and commands, editing functions, working with user and world coordinate systems, and creating solid 3D objects. The advantages of AutoCAD include compatibility with other CAD programs and reduced training costs, while disadvantages include limited file formats and non-parametric design capabilities.
Light is essential for plant growth and development. It has a wavelength range of 0.39 to 0.76μ and is important for photosynthesis and chlorophyll synthesis. The characteristics of light that impact plants are intensity, quality, duration, and direction. Intensity affects photosynthesis and respiration rates. Quality refers to light wavelength, with red and blue most important for growth. Duration determines photoperiodism and flowering. Direction influences root and leaf orientation through phototropism.
This document discusses breeding techniques for hybrid seed production. It describes one, two, and three line breeding systems. It also discusses two approaches to inducing male sterility: environment sensitive male sterility (EGMS) and chemically induced male sterility (CIMS). EGMS includes photoperiod-sensitive genic male sterility (PGMS), temperature-sensitive genic male sterility (TGMS), and photothermosensitive genic male sterility (PTGMS). The document focuses on biochemistry, physiology, and biomolecular areas of action for hybrid seed production.
Tuberose is a fragrant flower native to Mexico that is commonly used for garlands, floral arrangements, and perfumes. It is a perennial plant propagated through bulbs that prefers warm, humid climates. The funnel-shaped flowers are borne in spikes and come in single, semi-double, and double varieties. Tuberose is cultivated commercially through bulb propagation with bulbs planted in well-draining soil amended with organic matter. Cultural practices include staking, fertilization, irrigation, and pest and disease management. The flowers and bulbs are harvested and used fresh or for extracting essential oils.
Chrysanthemums are an important commercial flower crop that are classified into 13 types based on their bloom structure. They are propagated vegetatively through cuttings and grown as a short day plant. Chrysanthemums require specific cultivation practices like pinching, disbudding, and staking to produce optimum yields. They face issues from pests, diseases, and environmental disorders and are harvested and stored before shipping to markets. Many public and private institutions have developed improved chrysanthemum varieties suited to different growing regions and seasons.
This document provides instructions and resources for a management consulting presentation template. It includes:
- An overview of the template structure and contents
- Instructions on customizing slides, credits, fonts, and resources
- Sections, topics, and placeholders to customize the presentation
- Alternate photos, illustrations, icons and other graphics that can be used in the presentation
This document describes experiments to determine soil moisture properties including:
1. Gypsum resistance blocks are used to indirectly measure soil moisture content based on the principle that electrical resistance between electrodes in blocks embedded in soil depends on moisture content.
2. Maximum water holding capacity is determined by saturating soil samples and measuring retained moisture after drainage.
3. Field capacity is measured after saturating soil samples in situ and allowing 48-72 hours for drainage, representing moisture retained by gravity.
4. Permanent wilting point is the moisture content where sunflower plants in sealed cans with restricted water do not recover from wilting overnight in a dark, humid environment.
The document discusses the botany and cultivation of turmeric (Curcuma longa), including its botanical name, family, origin in Southeast Asia, major constituents like curcumin, and common names. It provides details on the plant's chromosome number, morphology, flowering biology, genetic resources, wild relatives, cultivar diversity in India, and important varieties. The main active compounds in turmeric like curcuminoids and turmerones are also summarized along with their various medicinal and biological properties.
This document discusses the importance of proper post-harvest handling of cut flowers to minimize losses and maximize quality and longevity. It outlines the key steps in post-harvest handling including harvesting, conditioning, pre-cooling, pulsing, grading, bunching, wrapping, packaging, storage, transport and sale. It emphasizes that quality is essential from production through consumption and depends on effective management of pre-harvest and post-harvest factors.
This document provides information on new varieties of several flower crops including roses, marigolds, chrysanthemums, gladiolus, tuberoses, and others. It describes the key characteristics of each variety such as flower color, yield potential, and suitability for different uses like cut flowers or garden displays. Many of the varieties were developed through hybridization and selection programs to have traits like improved disease resistance, flower size, and vase life.
Biometrical applications are increasingly being used in plant breeding to improve crop varieties and yield. Statistical techniques help plant breeders understand the genetic control of traits and use that information to select the best parents for crossing. Quantitative genetics models estimate the heritability of traits and predict gains from selection, aiding breeders in their efforts to develop new varieties with desirable characteristics.
This document discusses soil pH and factors that influence it. It begins by explaining that soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) in the soil solution. It then discusses typical pH ranges for agricultural soils and different types of acidic and alkaline soils. The rest of the document covers measurement of soil pH using colorimetric indicators or a pH meter, factors that affect soil pH readings such as temperature and soil-water ratio, and precautions for using a glass pH electrode.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
2. Coconut called as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven).
It is also called as Tree of Life, Tree of Abundance, Tree of
Plenty, etc.
Each and every part of the coconut palm is useful to man in
one way or another.
The word coco derives from the word monkey because the
nut resembles a monkey's face.
Coconut is an important crop. About 1 crore people
depends on its cultivation and processing.
48%of coconut produced is consumed as raw nuts,
30%for milling copra for oil extraction,
8%as edible copra and
4% for coconut cream, milk, and other by-products.
Introduction
3. Composition and use
Water composition is 95.5%
Protein content is 0.1%
Fat content is <0.1%
Mineral content is 0.4%
CHO 4%
Ca 0.02
P <0.01
Fe 0.5mg
Composition of coconut water
4. Composition of kernel
Moisture 45%
Protein 4%
Fat 37%
Minerals 4%
CHO 10%
Richest source of vegetable fat yielding 60-
67% oil
5. Use of coconut palm and its products
Plant parts Uses
Root Beverage, fuel, medicine for intestinal
complaints, coughs, antiseptic lotion for
wounds & mouth wash.
Stem Timber, particle board.
Leaves Thatching houses, place mat, fruit tray.
Inflorescence Gin, toddy.
Coconut meat Copra, coconut oil, oil cake for animal
feed, desiccated coconut.
Pith Soil ameliorant, filler in thermoplastic
industries, oxalic acid.
Coconut water Vinegar, soft drink.
Coconut shell Mail rack, lamp shade, charcoal, shell
flour, mosquito coil.
husk Rope, yarn, brush, floor mat, door mat,
6. Origin and Distribution
Coconut originated and was domesticated
in Malaysia where it was widely distributed
It was taken in prehistoric times to the
mainland of Asia, and had reached East
Africa before 1492
All tropical areas are suitable for coconut
cultivation
Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Srilanka
are the major producer of coconut, in
world.
13. The Root
The coconut palm has an adventitious root
system as typical of a monocot, i.e., it
produces numerous uniformly thick roots
from the base of the stem almost
throughout its life.
The main roots measure 6 m in length on
an average and in rare instances they may
grow even up to 25 m. they are usually of
uniform thickness of about 8 mm in
diameter.
14. The total number of roots in a tree depends
upon its age and the environment.
they may vary from 1,500 to 2,500 in a tree
aged about 25 years and 3,620 roots in a 60
to 70-years-old tree.
The number of roots counted on a bole
usually varies from 4,000 to 7,000.
Coconut roots are also provided with
numerous lenticels-like outgrowths or
ventilators which may be called 'breathing
organs', 'breathing roots' or
'Pneumatophores', which help in the
exchange of gases.
16. Stem
When the bole reaches the full stage of its development, the
stem becomes visible.
The thickness of the stem generally depends upon the vigor of
the tree, hereditary variation and soil conditions.
In the initial years of the growth of the tree the stem gradually
increases in thickness and this thickness is maintained
throughout.
When the leaves grow old they are shed , leaving a rough
pitted scar on the trunk which encircles the whole stem.
From the counts of these scars the age of the trees can be
approximately determined, as roughly 12 to 14 such
successive scars left on the tree correspond to a year of
growth of the tree.
It is also possible to gauge the vigour of the tree from these
scars.
In a bearing tree the scars left by the inflorescence stalk may
be seen on the stem in the middle above the widest portion of
the leaf scar.
17. The Leaf
Every tree has a crown of leaves oriented at the top of the
trunk consisting of opened leaves and those in the bud in
various stages of development.
The number of leaves in the crown varies depending on the
conditions prevailing, viz., method of cultivation, nutritional
status of the soil, sunlight, etc.
In adult trees, the crown comprises about 30 to 40 opened
leaves.
There are generally four sets of leaves in the crown.
The first set consists of ten to twelve leaves counted from the
oldest leaf, from the axils of which the bunches have already
been harvested.
18. The second set consisting of ten to fourteen
leaves will be those supporting fruit bunches in
the different stages of development.
The third set includes ten to twelve opened
leaves in the axils of which are found spadix in
various stages of development.
The soft and brittle bud in the centre of the
crown is the most rapidly growing part of the tree
20. The Inflorescence
Inflorescence of the coconut are formed in the axils of every leaf
of a bearing tree
The coconut is a monoecious plant producing male and female
flowers separately on the same tree.
The inflorescence appears at first in the axil of a leaf as a pear
shaped flat structure.
At this time, it is completely protected by two sheaths and is
collectively known as the spadix.
The outer sheath is thick and fibrous while the inner one is more
yellow and often fibrous and somewhat flat in nature
Its size varies from 0.75 m to 2 m in length depending upon the
individual palm.
21. Flowering commences at 6-12 years of age.
Each spikelets bears about 200-300male flowers at top.
1-2 female flowers at base
Female flower are globose and about 2-3cm in diameter having
large ovary, with 3 locules and 3 nectary glands
The average number of female flowers per tree in the group
good is about 151
Medium about 120
poor only 41.
25. The Pollen
When the anthers are fully mature, the pollen
sacs burst along two longitudinal slits.
The pollen grains are spherical and smooth when
very fresh.
On exposure for a few seconds, they turn
ellipsoidal with a longitudinal groove in the
middle and they measure about 0.063 mm in
length and 0.020 mm in breadth at the centre.
In the mature pollen grain, there are three nuclei
one of which is larger than the remaining two.
26. The Fruit
The fruit of the coconut, botanically known as a fibrous drupe
and popularly the 'nut', consists internally of the
endospermous kernel with the embryo embedded in it and
externally protected by the fruit coat known as the pericarp
which consists of three distinct and well defined regions, viz.,
the exocarp or epicarp, the mesocarp and the endocarp.
The outermost region of the fruit coat is the exocarp (or
epicarp) which consists of a tough smooth and hard fibrous
skin where as in the ripe fruit it assumes green, red, yellow
or brown colour.
Within the kernel is a cavity which in the unripe fruit is
completely filled with the liquid popularly known as 'coconut
water'.
As the fruit ripens, this water gets very much reduced.
30. varieties
Dwarf Varieties In India
Chowghat Green Dwarf,
Chowghat Orange Dwarf,
Gangabondam
Gudanjali Dwarf.
Malayan dawaf orange
Malayan dawaf green
Malayan dawaf yellow
31. Tall Varieties In India
West Coast Tall,
Laccadive Ordinary,
East Coast Tall
Andaman Ordinary
Kappadam
Gangabhavani
Verri kobbari
Rangoon kobbari
32. Name Area for which recommended Nut yield Copra (g/nut) Oil content (%)
Selections
Chandrakalpa Kerala, Karnataka, TN 97 195 70
Kerachandra AP, Maharashtra, 110 198 66
Chowghat Orange
Dwarf
All coconut growing regions Tender nut variety
Kalpa Pratibha West Coast region and peninsular
India
91 256 67
Kalpa Dhenu West Coast region and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
86 242 65.5
Kalpa Mitra West Coast region and West
Bengal
80 241 66.5
Kalparaksha West Coast region and root (wilt)
disease tracts of Kerala
65 215 65.5
Kalpasree Root (wilt) prevalent tracts of
Kerala and adjoining states.
90 96.3 66.5
Hybrids
Chandra Sankara Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu 110 208 68
Kera Sankara Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
AP
106 198 68
Chandra Laksha Kerala, Karnataka 109 195 69
Kalpa Samridhi West coast of India 117 220 67.5
Kalpa Sankara Root (wilt) prevalent tracts of
Kerala and adjoining states.
84 170 67.5
Coconut Varities
33. Distinguish between tall & dwarf
Trait Tall Dwarf
Height increment per year >50 m <50 m
Years to start of reproductive
maturity
Late (5 to 7years) Early (3 to 4years)
Expected life span >50 years <50 years
Nut size (Whole) Very small – large Very small - medium
Phenotypic variability
a) Within cultivar High Low
b) Between cultivar High High
Root distribution More dense Less dense & few
Reaction to adverse conditions Generally less & sensitive Sensitive to hypersensitive
Cultural requirement Average High input required
Leaf & bunch attachment Very strong Fragile
Geographic distribution More widely distributed &
commercial
Less widely & non –
commercial
Stem circumference Enlarged with a bulbous base Thin & either with a
cylindrical or tapering base
Mode of pollination Highly crossed Highly selfed
Pigmentation of nuts & petiole
of leaves
Mixture of green & brown yellow
rarely occur
Either pure green, brown,
yellow & red
34. Hybrids
Hybrid Parentage Released by
Chandra Sankara CODXWCT CPCRI
Chandra Laksha LOXCOD CPCRI
Kera sankra WCTXCOD CPCRI
Laksha Ganga LOXGB KAU
Ananda Ganga AOXGB KAU
Kera Ganga WCTXGB KAU
VHC-2 ECTXMYD TNAU
36. Soil
Coconut can be grown on variety of
soils.
Well drained deep sandy loam,
alluvial and red loamy soils are ideal
for its cultivation
Heavy clay soils and waterlogged
areas should be avoided
pH of soil should be 5.5-6.5
37. Climate
Coconut is a tropical crop and it grow
wel in warm humid areas with
alltitude of 1000m above the sea
level
It can be successfully grown in area
receiving rain fall of 750mm/annum.
Temperature should be 270C and
200hr of sunshins /year is ideal.
38. Propagation
Coconut is propagated through seed
nuts.
Coconut is cross pollinated one, it
does not breed true to type, by
means of a series of selection made
at different stages, it is possible to
eliminate poor quality seedlings.
39. The selection procedure
Selection of seed garden :
Seed garden should have high
yielding record.
Seed garden should contain a high
proportion of heavy bearers.
The garden free from pest diseases.
Palm located near cattle shed and
compost pits should be avoided
40. Selection of mother palms
Selection made based on following character :
Yield of palm :annul yield not <80 nuts, copra content should
not <150g.
Age of palm: should at lest 50 year, however, very old palm
>60year avoided.
Nature and disposition of leaf: should have 30 fully opened
leaves
Nature, number and sequence of production of
inflorescence : every leaf axil should have one inflorescence with
large numbers of spikes and 1-2 female flower.
Size and shape of nuts: medium sized nut with round and
oblong shape are preferred.
41. Collection and storage of seed nuts
Thin husked medium sized nut of 11-
12 months old are collected during
Oct – Mar
Seed nut should have high kernel
content, which positively related to
vigour and early germination of
seedlings
Seed nut should be stored in shade
for a minimum period of 60days
before sowing
42. Nursery techniques
Nursery site should be in partial
shade.
Preferably sandy soil is preferred
Open a trenches of about 0.5m
depth and 0.3-0.4 m width.
Apply aldrin 10% dust at rate of
12g/m2 to prevent termite
The nuts are planted in nursery after
on set of monsoon during May-
June.
45. Spacing and position seed nuts
Seed nut s are planted at spacing of
30x30.
They are planted in beds in trenches
25-30cm deep.
The nuts may planted vertically with
stalk end up.
Irrigate nursery regularly .
Apply BM and COC to avoid the
fungal infection.
46. Selection of seedlings
Seedlings are selected based on following
characters :
Early germination: should germinated within 5
months
Number of leaves: should have minimum 5 leaves
Girth of collar: should be 10 cm
Splitting of leaflets
Stunted and lanky seedling avoided
48. Planting
Plant seedlings in pits at a spacing of 9m x
9m in tall varieties,
7.5x7.5 spacing in dwarf varieties,
Dig pits of size 1m3 and fill up with rich
topsoil to a level of 15 cm from the
bottom. Plant seedlings at the centre of
pit, cover with soil up to collar level and
press around.
49.
50. Manuring and Fertilization
FYM
Before planting 1.25tonns/ha
After planting 50kg/plant/year
Leaf manure 50kg/plant/year
51. Age of
plant
N g/plant P g/plant K g/plant
1 YEAR 40 30 100
2 YEAR 85 55 200
3 YEAR 170 110 400
4 YEAR -
10YEAR
250 165 600
Fertilization
52. Intercropping and mixed cropping
Intercrops: Potato, Tapioca, Chilies.
Mixed cropping: banana and
pineapple can be grown at initial
stage crop growth
When plantation achieved age of 12-
15 year, cocoa, pepper, clove,
nutmeg.
53. Multistoried cropping system in coconut
Cultivating a mixture of crops with different
heights (multi-storey) and growth characteristics
which together optimise the use of soil, moisture
and space.
Model Multistoried cropping
54. Under the multi-storey cropping system, perennial crops
(coconut, banana, coffee, papaya, pineapple)
annuals/biennials (root crops: taro, yam, sweet potato etc) are
interplanted to maximize productivity and income.
coconuts are usually planted first. When they reach a height of
4.5 meters (after 3-4 years), bananas, coffee and/or papaya are
planted. After sufficient space has developed at ground level in
about three to four years, root crops are planted.
At full establishment, the system develops different layers:
coconut (tallest) followed by banana, coffee, papaya (middle),
root crops and pineapple (lowest).
The multi-storey system is intended to make the best use of
resources (soil, moisture and space) for increased farm income.
It is also very effective against soil erosion.
55. Multi-storied system Income (US$ per hectare)
Coconut+ Banana+ Taro 420+1530+250 =
2220
Coconut+ Banana+ Ginger 420+1530+2040 =
3990
Coconut+ Banana+ Pineapple 420+1530+1260 =
3210
Coconut+ Banana 420+1990 =
2410
Monocrop system (Coconut) 540 =
540
Coconut+ Pasture 540+105 =
645
Table 1. Income from multi-storied cropping system in coconut orchard
59. Rhinoceros Beetle
Scientific name: Oryctes rhinoceros
Symptoms of damage
Beetle bores into central shoots, spathes and
petioles, chews the tissues, ingests the juice and
throws out dry fibrous part.
Attacked central shoot topples down and the tree
may be killed if the growing primordium is
destroyed.
Leaves of partly damaged crowns when grow show
characteristic 'V' shaped cuttings on the leaflet.
60. Adult feeding on leaf V shape mark on leaf
Control
Treat the manure pits with carbaryl dust, four times a year in January,
April, July and October.
Hook out beetles from crowns during July-September and fill the
holes with lindane dust and sand ( 1: 1) mixture.
Poison bait made out of rotting mustard, castor cake, toddy or dung
and lindane attracts the beetles.
61. Red Palm Weevil
Scientific name: Rhynchophorus ferrugineus F.
Symptomatology :
It is very difficult to detect the presence of the
pest infestation in the earlier stages of attack.
The grub begins its life inside the palm and
normally never comes outside.
Therefore neither the grub nor the damage
caused by it can be readily seen.
Sometimes, a few small holes Occur in the crown
or the soft stem from which pieces of chewed
fibers protrude and a brownish viscous liquid
oozes out.
65. contorl
Drenching of carbaryl 4gm/liter of water
Painting raw surfaces of palm with a mixture
of 10 ml tar and 10 gm lindane dust prevents
egg laying
Pheromone Traps
66. Scales
Scientific name :Aspidiotus destructor
Symptoms of damage:
Female lays eggs under its shield like scale.
Crawlers move out to healthy leaflets, cluster in
large numbers on the underside of leaflets feeding
on cell sap.
Leaflets turn yellowish and in severe cases wither
and dry.
In severe infestation scales may also congregate on
green nuts and suck sap reducing the quality
68. Mites
Scientific name:Eriophyes guerreronis
Symptoms of damage:
Colonies of mites live under inner bracts
of perianth and suck sap from tender
tissues.
Damage initially appears as a triangular
patch at the level of perianth which turns
brown later.
69. •Mites damage
Sprays of
dicofol,@1.5ml/liter twice
at weekly intervals are
recommended on buttons
and developing nuts on
bunches.
Spraying of neem
formulation (0.15% or
1500 ppm) @ 5 ml/litre of
water also controls the
pest.
control
70. Black-Headed Caterpillar
Scientific name:Opisina arenosella
Symptoms of damage
o Larva scrapes and feeds on the surface tissues of
the lower surface of the leaflet .
o It binds two halves of leaflets together,
constructs a gallery of silk and frass and lives
under it.
o Affected palm
o Attacked leaflets turn brown and dry up.
o Attacks only lower leaves and from a distance
these appear as if burnt.
71. Control:
Root administration of monocrotophos is
most practical and widely adopted method.
A dark brown active, pencil- thick root is
taken out, and its end cut slantly,
immersed into a container (polythene bag)
with 10 ml monocrotophos and 10 ml
water.
73. Stem bleeding
Symptoms
Exudation of a rusty brown liquid
from cracks of trunks
Control
Apply 1%
Boreaux paste
74. Control
Chisel affected tissue and dress the wound
with 5% Calixin (5ml in 100ml water).
Apply coal tar after 2 days. Burn off
chiselled pieces.
Avoid any mechanical injury to the stem.
To avoid spread of disease on to upper
portion of trunk, root feeding with 5%
calixin may be adopted 3 times a year -
April-May, Spetember-October and
January-February.
75. Root wilt Disease
Symptoms:
Yellowing and wilting of inner leaves
Leaf become flaccid, necrotic.
77. Bud Rot
The earlier symptom is the yellowing of one or
two younger leaves. Black spots appear on
spindle leaves.
In the later stages the spindle withers and drops
down.
The tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crown
rot into a slimy mass of decayed material
emitting foul smell.
78. Bud Rot
•Spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture during
May and September if the disease occur
frequently.
79. Harvesting of Coconut
Coconut usually mature 12-13
month after opening of
inflorescence.
In India harvesting done twice
a year & Sri Lanka 6 times a
year
Harvesting is done 45 day
interval during summer & 60
days interval during rainy
season in Kerala.
Harvesting methods
India - By climbing tree
Sri Lanka– From ground knife
attached long bamboo pole
Malaysia& Thailand – Trained
monkeys are used
82. Coconut Products:
Tender Coconut Water
Copra
Coconut Oil
Raw Kernel
Coconut Cake
Coconut Toddy
Coconut Shell based Products
Coconut Wood based Products
Coconut Leaves
Coir Pith
83. Coconut water
coconut water is the tender liquid inside the young
coconuts.
Serves as the suspension for the endosperm of the
coconut during their nuclear phase of development
Endosperm mature into their cellular phase and
deposit into the rind of the coconut meat.
Coconut water is available in fresh canned, or
bottled.
Served as fresh chilled or packaged in many places.
Often sold by many street venders.
Also found in ordinary cans, tetra packs, plastic
bottles
Bottled coconut water has a shelf life of 24 months.
84. In recent years, it has been marketed as a natural
energy or sports drink due to its high potassium and
mineral content.
Low levels of fat, carbohydrates and calories.
Unless the coconut has been damaged it is likely
sterrile
In Bhamian cuisine coconut water may be drunk by
itself or blended with condensed milk and gin to make a
drink known as ‘Gully wash’ or ‘sky juice’.
In recent years, it has been marketed as a natural
energy or sports drink due to its high potassium and
mineral content.
85. Medical use :
It is said that coconut water is identical to
human plasma and can be injected directly into
human blood stream.The story has its origin from
World War II where british and Japanese patients
were given coconut water intraveinously because
saline solution was in short supply. but doctors
today say that they would not be Inclined to set up
a coconut water for dehydrated patients. It could
be possibly cause elevated calcium and potassium,
which could be dangerous
86. Classification of coconut
Lunger (1920)
Classified into 7 varieties
1) Vridis –green nut
2) Rubescence –brown nut
3) Macrocarpa – very big nut
4) Rutila – very thick husk and small endosperm
5) Euberna – ornamental/albino
6) Rubilla – green dwarf and early bearing
7) Regia – yellow /red/orange dwarf
87. John and Narayana(1949)
Clssified into 5 varieties
1)Spicata –
tall unbranched inflorescence maleflowers
useually absent,spikelets 1-2
2) Typica –
Tall and monoecious
3) Androgens –
Male palms
4) – Jawanica –
dwarf or semi tall bearing in 4 yrs.
5) Nana –Dwarf palms bering in 3 yrs.
88. Freemond et.al(1966)
Classified into 2
1) Autogamic – (self pollinated)
All dwarfs
2) Allogamic – (cross pollinated)
all tall varieties
BASED ON STATURE
1) Tall varieties
2) Dwarf varieties