This document discusses coal rank, grade, and type. It provides definitions and classifications for these coal properties.
Coal rank refers to the degree of coalification or thermal maturation of coal, ranging from lignite to anthracite. Coal grade is based on purity and ash content. Coal type is distinguished by the type of plant materials that formed the coal. These properties are independent but can vary spatially. Coal is first classified by rank to determine its utilization. Rank is determined through parameters like carbon content, energy value, and maceral composition that change with the coalification process. Coal plies form a basis for sampling and correlation within a coal seam based on variations in lithotype or partings.
Kerogen is the insoluble organic matter found in source rock that is the precursor to oil and gas. It makes up 1% of shale, with 90% being kerogen. Kerogen forms from organic materials like algae and plants over time under heat, pressure, and other conditions. It exists in four types that can be classified based on their hydrogen to carbon and oxygen to carbon ratios, with types I and II being more oil-prone and type III being more gas-prone. Kerogen is the key starting material in the formation of oil and natural gas deposits.
Radioactive minerals in India include uranium, thorium, and rare metals. Uranium deposits are found in three provinces - Singhbhum, Mahadek, and Cuddapah. The Singhbhum province contains vein-type deposits hosted in schist along the Singhbhum shear zone, including the major deposits at Jaduguda and Bhatin. The Mahadek province hosts large sandstone-type deposits in the Mahadek Formation such as Domiasiat. The Cuddapah province contains unconformity deposits such as Tummalapalle Rachakuntapalle and stratabound deposits. Thorium is found in monazite placers along coastal areas. Rare metals like
Metamorphic ore deposits form as a result of metamorphic processes within metamorphic rocks. They can form under various metamorphic conditions from low to high temperatures and pressures. Examples include the transformation of claystones to kyanite/sillimanite deposits or the formation of graphite flakes between magmatic bodies. There are three main types - copper-rich deposits associated with mafic rocks and organic sediments, archean iron formation-related gold deposits in quartz veins hosted in iron formations, and lead-zinc-silver rich deposits containing galena, sphalerite, and other minerals in quartz-carbonate veins.
COAL BED METHANE (CBM); Coal Seam Gas (CSG), or Coal-mine Methane (CMM); What and why CBM?; How do we estimate the amount of methane gas which will come from a region underlain by coal? ; Benefits of CBM ; Coal seams as aquifers; CBM product water ; What is saline water and why is it considered saline?; What is sodic water and why is it considered sodic? ; Irrigation of crops with CBM water; Current management practices for disposal of CBM product water
Coal forms from the accumulation and compression of plant materials over millions of years. It ranges in composition from 60-90% carbon. There are four main types - peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite - representing increasing stages of coalification. Peat forms from partial decomposition of plant matter in swamps. Lignite and bituminous coal contain more compressed plant tissue with higher carbon content. Anthracite is almost pure carbon. Coal is an important fuel used worldwide to generate electricity and power industry through combustion and coking.
Coal bed methane is natural gas found stored within coal beds. During the coalification process, organic material under heat and pressure produces volatile substances like methane and water that get trapped in the coal. The methane is stored primarily in the coal matrix and cleat fractures in the coal. To extract coal bed methane, wells are drilled into coal seams and groundwater is pumped out to lower pressure and release methane from the coal matrix and fractures. Estimating methane reserves involves extracting coal cores and measuring gas content or making calculations based on known coal characteristics and feasibility of development. Benefits include developing gas industries, generating government revenue, and utilizing produced water.
Geological criteria for ore prospectingPramoda Raj
This document outlines various geological criteria that can be used for ore prospecting, including stratigraphic, lithological, structural, magmatogenic, metamorphogenic, geomorphological, paleogeographical, paleoclimatic, and historical criteria. Specific examples are provided for each criteria, such as coal and iron ore deposits being associated with specific stratigraphic layers, or chromite and diamond deposits found near ultrabasic rocks. The document emphasizes that geological criteria provide indirect methods for locating ore deposits and should be used to guide prospecting efforts.
The document describes the four main stages of mineral exploration:
1) Reconnaissance surveys involve wide-spaced geological mapping and surveys to identify areas for further study.
2) Preliminary exploration uses closer-spaced surveys and sampling to select target areas.
3) General exploration involves detailed mapping, sampling, and shallow drilling of small areas.
4) Detailed exploration uses closely-spaced drilling to determine the precise shape, size, and grade of ore bodies.
Kerogen is the insoluble organic matter found in source rock that is the precursor to oil and gas. It makes up 1% of shale, with 90% being kerogen. Kerogen forms from organic materials like algae and plants over time under heat, pressure, and other conditions. It exists in four types that can be classified based on their hydrogen to carbon and oxygen to carbon ratios, with types I and II being more oil-prone and type III being more gas-prone. Kerogen is the key starting material in the formation of oil and natural gas deposits.
Radioactive minerals in India include uranium, thorium, and rare metals. Uranium deposits are found in three provinces - Singhbhum, Mahadek, and Cuddapah. The Singhbhum province contains vein-type deposits hosted in schist along the Singhbhum shear zone, including the major deposits at Jaduguda and Bhatin. The Mahadek province hosts large sandstone-type deposits in the Mahadek Formation such as Domiasiat. The Cuddapah province contains unconformity deposits such as Tummalapalle Rachakuntapalle and stratabound deposits. Thorium is found in monazite placers along coastal areas. Rare metals like
Metamorphic ore deposits form as a result of metamorphic processes within metamorphic rocks. They can form under various metamorphic conditions from low to high temperatures and pressures. Examples include the transformation of claystones to kyanite/sillimanite deposits or the formation of graphite flakes between magmatic bodies. There are three main types - copper-rich deposits associated with mafic rocks and organic sediments, archean iron formation-related gold deposits in quartz veins hosted in iron formations, and lead-zinc-silver rich deposits containing galena, sphalerite, and other minerals in quartz-carbonate veins.
COAL BED METHANE (CBM); Coal Seam Gas (CSG), or Coal-mine Methane (CMM); What and why CBM?; How do we estimate the amount of methane gas which will come from a region underlain by coal? ; Benefits of CBM ; Coal seams as aquifers; CBM product water ; What is saline water and why is it considered saline?; What is sodic water and why is it considered sodic? ; Irrigation of crops with CBM water; Current management practices for disposal of CBM product water
Coal forms from the accumulation and compression of plant materials over millions of years. It ranges in composition from 60-90% carbon. There are four main types - peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite - representing increasing stages of coalification. Peat forms from partial decomposition of plant matter in swamps. Lignite and bituminous coal contain more compressed plant tissue with higher carbon content. Anthracite is almost pure carbon. Coal is an important fuel used worldwide to generate electricity and power industry through combustion and coking.
Coal bed methane is natural gas found stored within coal beds. During the coalification process, organic material under heat and pressure produces volatile substances like methane and water that get trapped in the coal. The methane is stored primarily in the coal matrix and cleat fractures in the coal. To extract coal bed methane, wells are drilled into coal seams and groundwater is pumped out to lower pressure and release methane from the coal matrix and fractures. Estimating methane reserves involves extracting coal cores and measuring gas content or making calculations based on known coal characteristics and feasibility of development. Benefits include developing gas industries, generating government revenue, and utilizing produced water.
Geological criteria for ore prospectingPramoda Raj
This document outlines various geological criteria that can be used for ore prospecting, including stratigraphic, lithological, structural, magmatogenic, metamorphogenic, geomorphological, paleogeographical, paleoclimatic, and historical criteria. Specific examples are provided for each criteria, such as coal and iron ore deposits being associated with specific stratigraphic layers, or chromite and diamond deposits found near ultrabasic rocks. The document emphasizes that geological criteria provide indirect methods for locating ore deposits and should be used to guide prospecting efforts.
The document describes the four main stages of mineral exploration:
1) Reconnaissance surveys involve wide-spaced geological mapping and surveys to identify areas for further study.
2) Preliminary exploration uses closer-spaced surveys and sampling to select target areas.
3) General exploration involves detailed mapping, sampling, and shallow drilling of small areas.
4) Detailed exploration uses closely-spaced drilling to determine the precise shape, size, and grade of ore bodies.
Supergene enrichment occurs when oxidizing acids dissolve metal ions from near-surface parts of ore deposits and re-deposit them at depth, resulting in higher metal concentrations. This process forms distinct zones - an oxidized cap, a leached zone, and an enriched zone below the water table where metals precipitate under reducing conditions. Common effects include rendering shallow parts of deposits barren while concentrating metals into narrow, rich zones at depth through mineral alterations and redeposition. Examples of deposits formed or enriched by this process include many copper, lead, zinc, silver, and iron deposits globally.
Coal bed methane is natural gas formed during the coalification process and stored in coal seams. It is held in place by water pressure. CBM exploration involves mapping coal seams to determine their extent, thickness, permeability and gas content. Drilling uses mud circulation to remove cuttings and install casing for stability. Production involves hydraulic fracturing to increase permeability followed by dewatering to reduce water pressure and release the gas. Major CBM resources are found in Russia, China, the US, Australia and Canada while India has an estimated 1 TCM of reserves. Uses of CBM include fuel, electricity generation and supporting mine operations.
Geophysical Methods of Hydrocarbon ExplorationM.T.H Group
This document provides an overview of geophysical methods used for hydrocarbon exploration, specifically focusing on seismic surveying. It describes how seismic surveying works, including generating sound waves at shot points and measuring the travel time of reflections to determine subsurface rock densities and structures. Gravity and magnetic methods are also discussed briefly as tools used in the pre-drilling phase to locate salt domes and reefs, while seismic surveying is described as the most widely used method and applicable to both exploration and development phases.
This document summarizes sedimentary basins in India. It discusses how sedimentary basins form primarily through convergent, divergent, and transform tectonic boundaries. India has 26 sedimentary basins that have been divided into four categories based on their prospectivity for hydrocarbons. Category I basins have proven commercial production, while Category II have known hydrocarbon occurrences but no production. Category III are prospective based on geology, while Category IV require more data but show potential. The document concludes that sedimentary basins preserve important information and contain critical resources like hydrocarbons that are used for fuel and various industrial materials.
This document discusses hydrothermal fluids and hydrothermal ore deposits. It begins by describing the different types of fluids found in the Earth's crust, including sea water, meteoric water, connate water, metamorphic water, and mixtures. For hydrothermal deposits to form, these fluids need to circulate through the crust to dissolve and transport metals. Common hydrothermal deposit types include veins and cavity fillings. Veins can be fissure, ladder, or gash veins and cavity fillings include saddle reefs. Metal solubility in hydrothermal fluids is controlled by factors like temperature, pH, and ligand complexes. Precipitation occurs when solubility decreases, such as due to changes in fluid composition or physical properties like
Contact metasomatism forms new minerals through reactions between intrusive rocks and escaping gases from magma chambers. Important requirements include a magma source of ore ingredients and intrusion into reactive host rocks. Metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, and W can be deposited through this process. Hydrothermal deposits are formed when hot, mineral-laden waters circulate through fractures, leaching and redepositing metals. Sedimentary deposits can form through evaporation, biochemical processes, or mechanical concentration of minerals in placer deposits.
This document provides an overview of kimberlites, including their mineralogy, morphology, petrology, classification, origin, and economic importance. Kimberlites occur as vertical carrot-shaped intrusions called pipes and have an inequigranular texture consisting of large crystals in a fine-grained matrix. They are classified into Group I and Group II based on isotopic affinities. Kimberlites originate at depths of 100-200 km in the mantle and are emplaced explosively due to their high volatile content, forming diatremes with features like angular fragments. Kimberlites are economically important as the primary source of diamonds, though only 1 in 200 pipes contain gem-quality diamonds.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
Information about these fluids is an invaluable aid in mineral exploration.
Conventional academic methods of analysing fluid inclusions are too slow and tedious to be of practical application in typical mineral exploration activities.
However, the academic data from numerous studies does show that CO2 is an exceptionally important indicator when exploring for most types of gold deposit.
Because the baro-acoustic decrepitation method is a rapid and reliable method to measure CO2 contents in fluids, it can be used to study a spatial array of data and it is an invaluable and practical exploration method.
Measurements of temperatures of fluid inclusions does not usually help in mineral exploration as hydrothermal minerals deposit over a wide temperature range and there is no specific temperature which is indicative of mineralisation. However, if temperatures are available on a large spatial array of samples, then temperature trends may be a useful exploration method to find the hottest part of the system, which is presumably the location of the best economic mineralisation. Baro-acoustic decrepitation is the most practical method to determine temperatures of the large numbers of samples required.
Salinities of fluid inclusions are of limited use in exploration and are difficult to measure. However, they can be used to recognise intrusion related hydrothermal systems.
Kimberlite is a potassic, ultrabasic igneous rock that forms vertical pipes and intrusions. It has a porphyritic texture with large crystals in a fine-grained matrix. Kimberlites originate deep in the Earth's mantle and erupt explosively to the surface due to their high gas content. They are classified into Groups I and II based on mineral assemblages and textures. Kimberlites occur in crater, diatreme, and hypabyssal facies and are economically important sources of diamonds. The Wajrakarur field in India contains diamondiferous kimberlite pipes.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
Bauxite types, mineralogy, Indian occurrencesPramoda Raj
The document discusses bauxite, including its mineral composition, locations of deposits, and uses. It notes that bauxite is the primary ore for aluminum production. India has significant bauxite reserves and is the 5th largest producer globally. The document outlines several important bauxite deposits in India, including in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. These deposits are typically associated with laterite soils and formed from weathering of igneous rocks under tropical conditions.
Coal bed methane is a process that extracts natural gas from coal seams without mining the coal. Water is pumped into the underground coal seams to create fractures that allow the trapped methane gas to flow into wells drilled into the seams. The water and gas are then separately pumped up through the wells. While coal bed methane production avoids some mining costs and risks, it can negatively impact local groundwater and cause air pollution if not properly managed through water disposal and casing/cementing of wells.
The document discusses lead and zinc minerals found in India. It describes the world class lead-zinc ore body discovered in Zawar, Rajasthan in 1977. The important lead mineral is galena and the important zinc mineral is sphalerite. It details the properties, origins, occurrences and uses of galena and sphalerite. The Zawar deposit is a cavity filling deposit formed in dolomite rock through the solution of minerals in rock openings. Lead and zinc have many industrial uses such as in batteries, alloys, coatings and more. India is a major producer of zinc, led by the deposits in the Zawar area.
This document provides an overview of petroleum geology, including:
1. It defines petroleum geology as the study of the origin, generation, migration, and accumulation of hydrocarbons, with the goal of exploring for and producing oil and gas.
2. Petroleum can occur as liquid (crude oil), gas (natural gas), or solid/semi-solid forms like asphalt or bitumen. Natural gas exists as either associated or non-associated gas.
3. Crude oils vary in properties like specific gravity, viscosity, pour point, and optical activity. The origin of petroleum is now widely accepted to be organic rather than inorganic.
Proterozoic sedimentary basins of India in generalPramoda Raj
This document provides an overview of Proterozoic sedimentary basins in India. It discusses 10 major basins, including the Vindhyan, Cuddapah, and Kaladgi basins. These basins formed between 1.6 billion to 540 million years ago and contain important economic mineral deposits like limestone, coal, and diamonds. Fossils found in several basins provide evidence of early life in the Proterozoic Eon. The basins preserve records of crustal evolution and atmospheric change on the Indian subcontinent.
Petroleum geology is the application of geology to explore for and produce oil and gas. It relies on understanding rock structures that can trap hydrocarbons underground. Key techniques used include seismic surveys, which use shock waves to map underground rock layers and structures that may indicate oil and gas traps. Important milestones include the development of the anticlinal theory of trapping in 1883, the invention of the seismograph in 1914, and the introduction of 3D seismic in the 1980s to improve imaging of underground structures.
The document discusses the geology of the Singhbhum Craton located in northern Odisha and Jharkhand, India. It is known for its rich iron and copper deposits. The craton contains several rock groups from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic periods that record its tectonic evolution. The oldest rocks are the Older Metamorphic Group composed of schists and gneisses. Overlying are the iron-rich rocks of the Iron Ore Group. Later intrusions included the Singhbhum Granite batholith and sediments make up the Singhbhum, Dhanjori, and Gangpur Groups. The stratigraphy and structure of the craton provide evidence of its early
India is the 4th largest producer of manganese ore in the world, with Karnataka and Orissa having some of the largest deposits. Manganese ore occurs in various forms like massive, columnar, fibrous, botryoidal, and granular deposits. It is an important raw material used in steel production and also has various other industrial applications. The key manganese ore producing states in India are Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, which have deposits of different types including residual, sedimentary, hydrothermal, and metamorphosed ores.
Coal can be classified in several ways based on different parameters. Some common classification systems include:
1. Visual classification based on color, structure into categories like lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
2. Proximate analysis classification using parameters like fixed carbon, volatile matter, and fuel ratio to categorize into types.
3. Ultimate analysis classification systems like Regnault-Grüner-Brosquet and Seyler's that classify based on carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen content.
4. National and international standards that use parameters like volatile matter, ash content, calorific value to systematically grade and code different coal types.
Coal and petroleum are related in their origin from plant matter, but differ in their state and environment of deposition. Both undergo geological processes that change their composition over time through coalification and kerogen formation. Coals can serve as a source rock for natural gas and, depending on their composition and maturity, may generate oil as well. Key indicators of coal rank and maturity include moisture, volatile content, carbon content, and vitrinite reflectance measured microscopically.
Supergene enrichment occurs when oxidizing acids dissolve metal ions from near-surface parts of ore deposits and re-deposit them at depth, resulting in higher metal concentrations. This process forms distinct zones - an oxidized cap, a leached zone, and an enriched zone below the water table where metals precipitate under reducing conditions. Common effects include rendering shallow parts of deposits barren while concentrating metals into narrow, rich zones at depth through mineral alterations and redeposition. Examples of deposits formed or enriched by this process include many copper, lead, zinc, silver, and iron deposits globally.
Coal bed methane is natural gas formed during the coalification process and stored in coal seams. It is held in place by water pressure. CBM exploration involves mapping coal seams to determine their extent, thickness, permeability and gas content. Drilling uses mud circulation to remove cuttings and install casing for stability. Production involves hydraulic fracturing to increase permeability followed by dewatering to reduce water pressure and release the gas. Major CBM resources are found in Russia, China, the US, Australia and Canada while India has an estimated 1 TCM of reserves. Uses of CBM include fuel, electricity generation and supporting mine operations.
Geophysical Methods of Hydrocarbon ExplorationM.T.H Group
This document provides an overview of geophysical methods used for hydrocarbon exploration, specifically focusing on seismic surveying. It describes how seismic surveying works, including generating sound waves at shot points and measuring the travel time of reflections to determine subsurface rock densities and structures. Gravity and magnetic methods are also discussed briefly as tools used in the pre-drilling phase to locate salt domes and reefs, while seismic surveying is described as the most widely used method and applicable to both exploration and development phases.
This document summarizes sedimentary basins in India. It discusses how sedimentary basins form primarily through convergent, divergent, and transform tectonic boundaries. India has 26 sedimentary basins that have been divided into four categories based on their prospectivity for hydrocarbons. Category I basins have proven commercial production, while Category II have known hydrocarbon occurrences but no production. Category III are prospective based on geology, while Category IV require more data but show potential. The document concludes that sedimentary basins preserve important information and contain critical resources like hydrocarbons that are used for fuel and various industrial materials.
This document discusses hydrothermal fluids and hydrothermal ore deposits. It begins by describing the different types of fluids found in the Earth's crust, including sea water, meteoric water, connate water, metamorphic water, and mixtures. For hydrothermal deposits to form, these fluids need to circulate through the crust to dissolve and transport metals. Common hydrothermal deposit types include veins and cavity fillings. Veins can be fissure, ladder, or gash veins and cavity fillings include saddle reefs. Metal solubility in hydrothermal fluids is controlled by factors like temperature, pH, and ligand complexes. Precipitation occurs when solubility decreases, such as due to changes in fluid composition or physical properties like
Contact metasomatism forms new minerals through reactions between intrusive rocks and escaping gases from magma chambers. Important requirements include a magma source of ore ingredients and intrusion into reactive host rocks. Metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, and W can be deposited through this process. Hydrothermal deposits are formed when hot, mineral-laden waters circulate through fractures, leaching and redepositing metals. Sedimentary deposits can form through evaporation, biochemical processes, or mechanical concentration of minerals in placer deposits.
This document provides an overview of kimberlites, including their mineralogy, morphology, petrology, classification, origin, and economic importance. Kimberlites occur as vertical carrot-shaped intrusions called pipes and have an inequigranular texture consisting of large crystals in a fine-grained matrix. They are classified into Group I and Group II based on isotopic affinities. Kimberlites originate at depths of 100-200 km in the mantle and are emplaced explosively due to their high volatile content, forming diatremes with features like angular fragments. Kimberlites are economically important as the primary source of diamonds, though only 1 in 200 pipes contain gem-quality diamonds.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
Information about these fluids is an invaluable aid in mineral exploration.
Conventional academic methods of analysing fluid inclusions are too slow and tedious to be of practical application in typical mineral exploration activities.
However, the academic data from numerous studies does show that CO2 is an exceptionally important indicator when exploring for most types of gold deposit.
Because the baro-acoustic decrepitation method is a rapid and reliable method to measure CO2 contents in fluids, it can be used to study a spatial array of data and it is an invaluable and practical exploration method.
Measurements of temperatures of fluid inclusions does not usually help in mineral exploration as hydrothermal minerals deposit over a wide temperature range and there is no specific temperature which is indicative of mineralisation. However, if temperatures are available on a large spatial array of samples, then temperature trends may be a useful exploration method to find the hottest part of the system, which is presumably the location of the best economic mineralisation. Baro-acoustic decrepitation is the most practical method to determine temperatures of the large numbers of samples required.
Salinities of fluid inclusions are of limited use in exploration and are difficult to measure. However, they can be used to recognise intrusion related hydrothermal systems.
Kimberlite is a potassic, ultrabasic igneous rock that forms vertical pipes and intrusions. It has a porphyritic texture with large crystals in a fine-grained matrix. Kimberlites originate deep in the Earth's mantle and erupt explosively to the surface due to their high gas content. They are classified into Groups I and II based on mineral assemblages and textures. Kimberlites occur in crater, diatreme, and hypabyssal facies and are economically important sources of diamonds. The Wajrakarur field in India contains diamondiferous kimberlite pipes.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
Bauxite types, mineralogy, Indian occurrencesPramoda Raj
The document discusses bauxite, including its mineral composition, locations of deposits, and uses. It notes that bauxite is the primary ore for aluminum production. India has significant bauxite reserves and is the 5th largest producer globally. The document outlines several important bauxite deposits in India, including in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. These deposits are typically associated with laterite soils and formed from weathering of igneous rocks under tropical conditions.
Coal bed methane is a process that extracts natural gas from coal seams without mining the coal. Water is pumped into the underground coal seams to create fractures that allow the trapped methane gas to flow into wells drilled into the seams. The water and gas are then separately pumped up through the wells. While coal bed methane production avoids some mining costs and risks, it can negatively impact local groundwater and cause air pollution if not properly managed through water disposal and casing/cementing of wells.
The document discusses lead and zinc minerals found in India. It describes the world class lead-zinc ore body discovered in Zawar, Rajasthan in 1977. The important lead mineral is galena and the important zinc mineral is sphalerite. It details the properties, origins, occurrences and uses of galena and sphalerite. The Zawar deposit is a cavity filling deposit formed in dolomite rock through the solution of minerals in rock openings. Lead and zinc have many industrial uses such as in batteries, alloys, coatings and more. India is a major producer of zinc, led by the deposits in the Zawar area.
This document provides an overview of petroleum geology, including:
1. It defines petroleum geology as the study of the origin, generation, migration, and accumulation of hydrocarbons, with the goal of exploring for and producing oil and gas.
2. Petroleum can occur as liquid (crude oil), gas (natural gas), or solid/semi-solid forms like asphalt or bitumen. Natural gas exists as either associated or non-associated gas.
3. Crude oils vary in properties like specific gravity, viscosity, pour point, and optical activity. The origin of petroleum is now widely accepted to be organic rather than inorganic.
Proterozoic sedimentary basins of India in generalPramoda Raj
This document provides an overview of Proterozoic sedimentary basins in India. It discusses 10 major basins, including the Vindhyan, Cuddapah, and Kaladgi basins. These basins formed between 1.6 billion to 540 million years ago and contain important economic mineral deposits like limestone, coal, and diamonds. Fossils found in several basins provide evidence of early life in the Proterozoic Eon. The basins preserve records of crustal evolution and atmospheric change on the Indian subcontinent.
Petroleum geology is the application of geology to explore for and produce oil and gas. It relies on understanding rock structures that can trap hydrocarbons underground. Key techniques used include seismic surveys, which use shock waves to map underground rock layers and structures that may indicate oil and gas traps. Important milestones include the development of the anticlinal theory of trapping in 1883, the invention of the seismograph in 1914, and the introduction of 3D seismic in the 1980s to improve imaging of underground structures.
The document discusses the geology of the Singhbhum Craton located in northern Odisha and Jharkhand, India. It is known for its rich iron and copper deposits. The craton contains several rock groups from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic periods that record its tectonic evolution. The oldest rocks are the Older Metamorphic Group composed of schists and gneisses. Overlying are the iron-rich rocks of the Iron Ore Group. Later intrusions included the Singhbhum Granite batholith and sediments make up the Singhbhum, Dhanjori, and Gangpur Groups. The stratigraphy and structure of the craton provide evidence of its early
India is the 4th largest producer of manganese ore in the world, with Karnataka and Orissa having some of the largest deposits. Manganese ore occurs in various forms like massive, columnar, fibrous, botryoidal, and granular deposits. It is an important raw material used in steel production and also has various other industrial applications. The key manganese ore producing states in India are Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, which have deposits of different types including residual, sedimentary, hydrothermal, and metamorphosed ores.
Coal can be classified in several ways based on different parameters. Some common classification systems include:
1. Visual classification based on color, structure into categories like lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
2. Proximate analysis classification using parameters like fixed carbon, volatile matter, and fuel ratio to categorize into types.
3. Ultimate analysis classification systems like Regnault-Grüner-Brosquet and Seyler's that classify based on carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen content.
4. National and international standards that use parameters like volatile matter, ash content, calorific value to systematically grade and code different coal types.
Coal and petroleum are related in their origin from plant matter, but differ in their state and environment of deposition. Both undergo geological processes that change their composition over time through coalification and kerogen formation. Coals can serve as a source rock for natural gas and, depending on their composition and maturity, may generate oil as well. Key indicators of coal rank and maturity include moisture, volatile content, carbon content, and vitrinite reflectance measured microscopically.
Chert is a form of quartz that occurs in sedimentary rocks, usually in discontinuous beds or nodules. It can form biologically from siliciclastic rocks or diagenetically from carbonates. Coal forms from plant debris in association with some siliciclastic rocks. It can have banded or non-banded textures reflecting its organic compound content. Coal rank depends on the degree of metamorphism, with increasing rank containing more energy per volume. Evaporites form through chemical precipitation in restricted basins where evaporation exceeds precipitation, leaving behind minerals like gypsum, halite, and sulfates.
Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen. Ultimate analysis is also known as elemental analysis, it is the method to determine the Carbon,Hydrogen,Nitrogen,Sulphur and Oxygen content present in solid fuel.
This document provides an overview of coal, including its history, formation, types, availability, uses, and effects. It discusses how coal is an unrenewable fossil fuel formed from prehistoric vegetation over millions of years. The document outlines coal's role as an energy source throughout history and today, providing statistics on its current global consumption and reserves. Both advantages and disadvantages of coal are presented, with disadvantages including health impacts from mining and air pollution, as well as environmental effects.
The document discusses New York City's current energy options and their environmental impacts. It argues that relying heavily on fossil fuels like oil and coal in their current forms is unsustainable and damages the environment. However, it asserts that with emerging clean coal technologies which eliminate emissions, coal could be a viable long-term energy source for New York. Adopting clean coal along with other green policies, it claims, could reduce New York's ecological footprint while ensuring stable energy prices and a healthier environment.
The document discusses the formation and types of coal. It begins by explaining how coal forms from plant debris that accumulates in swamps and bogs. Over millions of years of burial and heating, the plant material transforms into peat and then into lignite, subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite coal. It then describes the different ranks of coal from lignite to anthracite based on their carbon content and heating value. The document concludes by covering coal production and use in the United States, with a focus on coal mining and its environmental impacts in Illinois.
This document discusses various coal mining methods, including opencast and underground mining. For opencast mining, the main methods described are shovel and dumper, dragline, surface miner, and bucket wheel excavator. Underground mining methods discussed include continuous miners, longwall mining, and road headers. New concepts being implemented in India such as highwall mining, punch longwall mining, and longwall top coal caving are also summarized. The document provides diagrams and descriptions of the equipment used for different mining methods.
The document discusses underground mining methods. It begins by explaining that the choice of mining method depends on characteristics of the orebody like thickness and dip, as well as the competency of surrounding rock. It then provides details on various hard rock and soft rock underground mining methods. These include longwall mining, room-and-pillar, blast mining, shortwall mining, and coal skimming for soft rocks. For hard rocks, methods include various stoping techniques, longwall mining, and caving methods. Stoping is defined as the process of extracting ore by leaving behind an open space called a stope.
This document summarizes the audience research and analysis conducted for a music magazine called DIRT. The primary audience is identified as males and females aged 16-25 who enjoy rock and indie music. Research shows this group enjoys shopping at stores like Topshop, Urban Outfitters and River Island. The cover star chosen is Alex Turner from Arctic Monkeys to appeal to this audience as they identified AM as their favorite band. The magazine will be distributed weekly through Bauer Media group to target the same niche audience as magazines like Kerrang. Multi-platform access through a website, app and social media is discussed to engage readers online.
The document discusses the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) test method for determining the grindability of coal. It describes how the HGI test works, factors that influence grindability values, and the effects of coal blending on HGI values. Experimentally determined HGI values for coal blends sometimes differed from calculated weighted average values, with the difference generally within ±2 HGI units. The optimal coal blends for different applications can be identified based on considering both HGI values and other coal properties.
Promoting Innovation through Policies: The Clean Coal Tech sector in SpainIgnacio V
My In-Company Project with KIC InnoEnergy Iberia about the use of policies such as Innovative Procurement Policies to promote the use of Clean Coal Technologies in Spain.
War of the Lotuses - Determining the BATNA - The Best Alternative to a Negoti...drvipmethod
Thomas Giglione is a Canadian mediator, lecturer, and soft skills trainer who offers communication and conflict resolution workshops. He specializes in role plays and techniques from neuro-linguistic programming and methods from Harvard's Program on Negotiation. His recent pro bono seminar in Vietnam was attended by 145 participants from law, business, and government. The workshops teach practical negotiating skills through short lectures, discussions, role plays, and certification from the World Mediation Organization.
C O A L A N D I T S A V A I L A B I L I T Y 1Jayanta Bora
The document discusses coal, how it is formed, types of coal, coal mining methods, and coal usage. Key points:
- Coal is a combustible rock formed from compressed plant matter that lived hundreds of millions of years ago.
- There are several types of coal defined by their carbon content, including anthracite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite.
- Coal is mined through underground methods like shaft mining or surface methods like mountaintop removal.
- India's coal reserves and production have increased in recent decades to support its growing electricity needs.
This document provides an introduction and overview of Dr. Andrew Cox's Coal Lectures Series. The series covers topics related to coal formation, properties, use as a fuel, mining technologies, markets, pollution control, and more. Dr. Cox and colleagues at EIMR can provide lectures on these topics to university courses and professional development programs in the UK and internationally. Interested parties should contact Dr. Cox for more information. An introductory presentation on coal mining technologies is also included as an example of the type of material covered.
Coal formed from dead vegetation that was buried during the Carboniferous period from 360-300 million years ago. Over millions of years, the dead plant matter was subjected to heat, pressure, and time underground, transforming it through various ranks from peat to lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite coal with the highest carbon content. This coalification process occurred due to the vegetation being buried in an anaerobic environment without oxygen which allowed carbon rings to form.
This document discusses the properties and classification of coal. It describes the three main types of coal - anthracite, bituminous, and lignite - based on their composition and properties like carbon content and volatility. It also discusses the physical and chemical properties of coal that are important for combustion, including heating value, proximate analysis (fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture, ash), and ultimate analysis (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur content). The proper sizing of coal for different firing systems is also covered.
This document discusses soil, factors that influence soil formation like parent material and climate, the soil profile and horizons, methods of soil conservation like conservation tillage and cover crops, and organizations dedicated to soil conservation including the Soil Science Society of Pakistan. Key points covered include the definition of soil, factors that control the rate of soil formation such as geology and climate, the vertical layers that make up the soil profile, and techniques for preventing soil erosion and maintaining quality like contour planting and crop rotation.
Shear zones are zones of highly strained rock that form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. They record a history of deformation and can indicate the sense and amount of displacement. There are several types of shear zones defined by the dominant deformation mechanism (brittle, ductile, semibrittle, brittle-ductile). Determining the sense of shear is important and can be achieved through studying offset markers, foliation patterns, shear bands, inclusion shapes, and other indicators exposed in the shear zone.
Subsidence occurs when underground coal mine workings collapse, causing sinking of the ground surface. It usually appears as sinkholes or troughs. Many factors influence the extent of subsidence, including seam depth and thickness, roof and floor competence, extraction method, and degree of extraction. Subsidence can damage surface structures and is measured through surface observations, subsurface techniques like wireline logging, and predictive models ranging from empirical to numerical modeling.
The developer's view: an insight into what will be demanded of designers and ...Vikki Jacobs
British Land is a large UK real estate company that owns commercial property. They commissioned several studies to analyze the carbon footprint of their Ropemaker Place development in London. The studies found that embodied carbon from materials and construction accounted for around half of the building's total carbon footprint over its 60-year lifetime. They also found that operational carbon could be reduced by using biomass heating instead of gas. British Land is now requiring designers and contractors to consider embodied carbon and provide more transparency around materials to help lower carbon impacts from new developments.
This document summarizes Sibelco's range of performance flux minerals for sanitaryware glazes. It describes how their minerals have been formulated to provide consistent performance and optimize glaze quality. Their minerals ensure optimal sintering and fusion points while maintaining good glaze flow and surface finish. The minerals include Spectrum, Quantum, Maxum, and FFF, which offer a high level of fluxing oxides, low color content, and wide range of flux ratios. They are well-suited for use as the sole flux or in combination with other feldspars. The minerals can improve glaze aesthetics and reduce defects by providing low color, consistency, efficient fluxing, and increased fusion. Formulations using the
This document discusses SanTon, a range of engineered ball clays designed for improved casting performance in sanitaryware manufacturing. SanTon clays are blended from various European deposits and engineered at the mineral and structural levels to provide excellent rheological properties, casting stability, and quality sanitaryware production. In particular, SanTon clays can increase casting rates by up to 20% while maintaining strength properties compared to traditional clays. They are suitable for general purpose as well as fast and pressure casting applications.
Carbon International Conference 2007 Bin Zhao Oral Presentationbinzhao2004
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The document contains sales data from multiple retailers over several periods. It shows the total sales and market share of different retailers for various product categories like bread, milk, coffee, etc. The largest retailer, Maxi Group, consistently maintained the highest market share, ranging from 18.2% to 56.8% across categories and periods. Tempo Group and Idea Group also had significant market shares, typically in the 10-15% range. Smaller retailers like Aman, Persu, and Trgopromet each held less than 5% of the market on average.
Initial Sintering Mechanism of Mesocarbon Microbeadsguestdc9119
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The document summarizes research on the effects of 3 levels of pCO2 (400, 700, and 1000 μatm) on the early development of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Key findings include:
1) Higher pCO2 levels delayed larval development, reduced calcification, and decreased larval size.
2) The proportion of fertilized eggs and hatched larvae was lower at higher pCO2 levels.
3) Calcification was reduced in larvae exposed to higher pCO2, with fewer larvae showing full calcification at 72 hours in the 700 and 1000 μatm treatments.
4) Growth rates over 24-72 hours, as measured by h
The document discusses the Indian paint industry and introduces Vimal Microns Limited and some of their products. It provides an overview of the size and growth of the Indian paint market. It also discusses key characteristics of extenders commonly used in paint like calcium carbonate, talc, silica, and mica. These include properties like particle size, oil absorption, hardness, refractive index, and how they impact paint performance.
The document investigates cotton seed oil and neem methyl esters as biodiesel fuels in a CI engine. Cotton seed oil and neem oil were converted to methyl esters through a transesterification process. Various blends of the cotton seed and neem methyl esters with diesel were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine. Test results showed that the C20 blend, which is 20% cotton seed methyl ester and 80% diesel, had performance closest to diesel. Emissions and smoke were also lower for the biodiesel blends compared to pure diesel. Overall, the study found that cotton seed methyl ester provided better engine performance than neem methyl ester and that the C20 blend is a
A copy of the presentation I gave at the AusIMM 2009 International Uranium Conference. It outlines some testing I conducted on a Brannerite ore to beneficiate it.
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The document discusses the geology of oil and gas, including the key components of a petroleum system: source rock, migration, reservoir rock, trap, and seal. It then discusses the process of oil and gas maturation, which is related to temperature, pressure, depth, and time. Maturation occurs in or near the reservoir during or after primary migration is complete, and involves a series of diagenetic changes that produce hydrocarbons from heavier compounds with lower molecules. The document outlines several methods to identify the level of oil maturity based on vitrinite reflectance analysis, spore color index analysis, thermal alteration index, and Tmax pyrolisis analysis.
public serviceenterprise group Merrill Lynch Conffinance20
1) At the national level, air quality policy faces contention as the utility industry lobbies the federal government to delay regulations. However, individual states are implementing their own initiatives to address issues like particulate pollution, acid rain, and climate change.
2) Currently, coal remains competitive against natural gas due to high gas prices. But by 2008, tighter emissions regulations will narrow the cost gap as compliance costs increase for coal plants.
3) The competitive landscape in 2008 shows coal and gas prices beginning to converge as both fuels race to capitalize on their relative energy content, but regulations will drive up the cost of coal to the point where natural gas may become comparatively cheaper in many cases.
public serviceenterprise group MerrillLynchConffinance20
1) National air quality and climate change policies are contentious but tightening restrictions over time are likely. Individual states are implementing their own initiatives in areas like particulate matter, acid rain, and climate change.
2) Currently, rising natural gas prices make some coal plants competitive despite higher coal and environmental costs. However, future gas and coal prices are uncertain. Tighter mercury and CO2 rules could impact the competitiveness of coal.
3) The primary question is whether coal or natural gas will capture the current energy price difference. Investing in pollution controls for coal also carries regulatory and market risks.
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The document summarizes a study on the strength characteristics of mixtures of fly ash, lime, and sodium silicate at different free pouring consistencies. Specifically:
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3) These optimum mixtures have potential applications in bricks and grouting techniques for civil engineering projects.
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The document summarizes a study on the strength characteristics of mixtures of fly ash, lime, and sodium silicate at different free pouring consistencies. Various percentages of lime (5%, 10%, 15%) and sodium silicate (1-5%) were added to fly ash and tested for unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength at different curing periods up to 28 days. The optimum dosages of lime and sodium silicate were found to be 10-15% lime and 3-5% sodium silicate, with maximum strengths observed at these dosages. These mixtures have potential applications in bricks and grouting in civil engineering projects.
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1. Carbidic ADI (CADI) which has improved abrasion resistance through the addition of carbides.
2. Cold-rolled ADI which has enhanced toughness from transformation induced plasticity during rolling.
3. Bainitic-martensitic ADI which has a dual-phase microstructure for higher toughness and hardness.
It also discusses ausforming ADI to produce very fine ausferritic microstructures with dramatically increased strength, hardness, and wear resistance compared to conventionally processed ADI.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
Coal mine
1. ERTH 3117
COAL GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY SECTION
Lecture 13:
Coal Rank, Grade and Type
2. COAL CLASSIFICATION
Coal Type
A classification of coal distinguished on the basis of the
constituent plant materials; megascopic classification is a
“lithotype”. Microscopic classifications use
“microlithotypes” and “macerals”.
Coal Grade
A classification of coal based on degree of purity i.e.
quantity of ash left after burning; dependent upon amount
of mineral matter
Coal Rank
The classification of coals according to their degree of
metamorphism or coalification (maturation) in the natural
series from lignite to anthracite.
THESE ARE INDEPENDENT PROPERTIES
but can vary together spatially
3. FIRST CUT CLASSIFICATION IS RANK – IT DETERMINES UTILISATION
Image courtesty of Australian Coal Association website
5. NOT SO SIMPLIFIED MATURATION PROCESS
FROM LEVINE (1993)
COALIFICATION APPROX ASTM RANK PREDOMINANT PROCESSES PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHANGES
STAGE
Peatification Peat Maceration, humification, Formation of humic substances, increased
gelification, fermentation, aromaticity
concentration of resistent substances
(lipids, minerals)
Dehydration Lignite to sub- Dehydration, compaction, loss of o- Decreased moisture contents and O/C ration,
bituminous bearing groups, expulsion of - increased heating value, cleat growth
COOH, CO2 and H2O
Bituminisation Upper sub-bituminous Generation and entrapment of Increased Rvo, inc. fluorescence, increased
A through high volatile hydrocarbons depolymerisation of extract yields, dec. in density and sorbate
A bituminous matrix, increased hydrogen bonding accessibility, increased strength
Debituminisation Uppermost high volatile Cracking, expulsion of low Still increasing Rvo, Decreased fluorescence,
A through low volatile molecular weight hydrocarbons, dec. molecular weight of extract, dec. H/C
bituminous ESP. methane ratio, decreased strength, cleat growth
Graphitisation Semi-anthracite to Coalescence and ordering of pre- Dec in H/C ration, stronger XRD peaks, inc.
anthracite to meta- graphitic aromatic lamella, loss of sorbate accessibility, Rvo anisotropy,
anthracite hydrogen and loss of nitrogen strength, ring condensation and cleat healing
7. COAL RANK PARAMETERS
100 75 86 90 91 92 95
65 71 80
50 60 52
61 40
33.5 35.6
31 36.0 36.4 36.0 35.2
30
23.0 22
14.7 14
10 11.7
8
%C ARB O N 7.00
% VM (daf) 5
percent
ENERG Y (MJ/k g) 3 2.83
% IN S ITU MO IS T 1.97 2
1.58
Rvo 1.03
1 1 1 1
Rvm ax
0.63
0.42
0.20
0.1
ANTHRACITE
ANTRHACITE
PEAT
BITUMINOUS
BITUMINOUS
BITUMINOUS
BITUMINOUS
BROWN
WOOD
HIGH VOL.
COAL
LOW VOL.
MID VOL.
SEMI-
SUB
Some parameters are more sensitive than others to thermal maturation
These rank parameters, along with type and grade, assist in predicting utilisation behaviour
8. GRADE
Amount of impurities (i.e. mineral matter) in the coal
Commonly analysed as “ash yield”
Ash is the unburnable part of coal. It is most often sand and clay blown into
the swamp or brought in by river or tides. Most commercial coals range from
3% to 9% ash.
Why do we want to analyse for it? Mineral matter affects the coal
processing and handling. Hard minerals increase the wear and tear on
equipment during handling and crushing. The quantity of ash and its
composition is important to determine the method of its removal, either as a
dry ash or a slag during combustion. Other minerals and/or trace elements will
affect the quality of the coke and resulting steel.
9. Ash approximates Mineral Matter Content,
but does not encapsulate it
Mineral matter includes
other components lost
upon combustion such as
•CO2,
•SO2 and
•H20 of hydration
•Salts (e.g. Cl)
•Carbonates
•Sulphides
Often the volatiles from
these minerals are the
ones that foul or
corrode boilers in
power plants or that
are emitted in the
gases as pollutants
From Ward, 1984
There are also different reporting standards
10. Coal Quality
Those chemical and physical properties of a coal that
influence its potential use
Thomas, 2002
Chemical properties:
•Grade (ash yield and/or mineral matter content and composition)
•Rank (degree of coalification or thermal maturity)
ANALYTICAL TESTS
•Type (composition described either by lithotype or maceral content)
Physical properties:
•Density
•Abrasion index
•Hardness or grindability
•Particle size distribution
•Flotation behaviour
•Degree of oxidation
Performance properties:
•Calorific value/specific energy
•Ash fusion temperatures
•Caking tests (free swelling index, Roga index)
•Coking tests (Gray-King coke type, Fischer assay, Gieseler plastometer,
dilatometer)
11. HOW TO CHARACTERISE A COAL SEAM?
Coal Seam
a stratum or bed of coal; upper contact with rock called
“roof”, lower contact called “floor”
Bench (of coal)
a mineable section of coal or a unit of a coal seam that
can be traced laterally for some distance; it is usually
bounded by mappable rock partings or a significant
change in lithotype; generally used as a basis for
sampling. Synonomous with the term ply
Parting
a rock band or thin bed within a coal seam; often rock
partings become thick and create a divergence of the
coal beds known as a split.
Band
A significant layer within a seam or ply; if non-coal
often referred to as “clay band” or “dirt band” or “tuff
band”. Colloquial term “penny band” denotes
thickness. Also used to describe the organic units
within coal lithotypes.
Coal Type
a classification of coal distinguished on the basis of
Ward Chapter 5 the constituent plant materials; megascopic
classification is a “lithotype”.
12. DISTRIBUTION
Geometry (thickness
and areal extent) of
the coal deposit is
controlled by the
depositional
environment; i.e.
available space
between active water
courses or in ponded
depressions
Aerial view of
peat bog
in Russia
13. MIRE EVOLUTION
•Evolutionary sequence
of mire development
and peat accumulation
manifested in the
stratigraphy of coal
types (megascopic and
microscopic)
•Lateral variability will
occur due to variations
in the substrate
topography which is
often “swamped” by
mire development
•Paludification (to make
a “lake”)
•Terrestrialisation (to
make “land”)
McCabe, 1984
14. Internal stratigraphy or layering within a
coal deposit is controlled by plant succession,
flooding from adjacent water courses (or
volcanic ash falls) and degree of decay
Primary peat woodland
Black water brook
Succession
If water table is raised or lowered,
Oligotrophic bog lake
then these different vegetation
zones will overlay one another
15. A Example of
the Goonyella
Middle Seam
•Coal deposit varies
from >10m to <5m
•Thins to radially to
the north, west and
south
•Organic and
inorganic
composition will
change with respect
to geometry
A’
16. LATERAL CORRELATION OF LITHOTYPE PROFILES
IN THE GOONYELLA MIDDLE SEAM
A RELATIVE DISTANCE IS 50 km
A’
rider
Dull
Main seam
Dull banded
Ply 2 datum
Ply 3
10m
Interbanded
Ply 4
Bright banded
Leader
splits
Lithotype profile from core leader
Can the composition of the plies change laterally?
17. LITHOTYPE
PROFILES
0
100
•AT FACE OR IN CORE
T M G
B S H LE S EM IN
•SEPARATE COAL
200
SEAM INTO MAPPABLE
LA T O
Gl4
300 “PLIES” OR “BENCHES”
400
•WHY?
PLY 1
•SEAM
H R E
500
C A G
CORRELATION
PLY 2
600
•SELECTIVE MINING
PLY3
700
•QUALITY CONTROL
800 •GEOTECHNICAL
900
PROPERTIES
PLY 4
Band width rule
1000 5mm Australian system
RAMP 27 LD CORE
3 mm US system
10 mm European system
18. MEGASCOPIC CLASSIFICATION
COAL LITHOTYPES (not including stone partings)
first coined by Marie Stopes 1919- “On the Four Visible Ingredients of Banded Bituminous* Coal”
*there’s another one for brown coal
DULL BRIGHT
SA DULL DULL w/MINOR BANDED DULL BANDED BANDED BRIGHT BRIGHT
<1% bright 1-10% bright 10-40% bright 40-60% bright 60-90% bright >90% bright
ICCP DURAIN DURAIN DURO-CLARAIN CLARAIN VITRO CLARAIN VITRAIN
ASTM DURAIN DURAIN DULL CLARAIN CLARAIN BRIGHT CLARAIN VITRAIN
Others: fibrous coal=fusain=charcoal=mother coal
shaley coal=bone
coaly shale=carbonaceous mudstone
cannel coal
19. COAL TYPE AND FRACTURE/CLEAT
Cleat: the network of micro fractures coals develop when
subjected to changes in stress or uplift.
Bright banded coal Dull coal
highly cleated poorly cleated
thin to thick vitrain minor thin vitrain
WHICH WILL BE MORE FRIABLE?
WHICH WILL BE MORE PERMEABLE?
(assuming the cleats are not mineralised)
20. COAL STRENGTH varies with RANK AND TYPE
All samples at 0.2 MPa Confining Strength
35
33
30
Peak Strength MPa
25 25
20
Riverside Rank 1.2
Rank 0.53
15 15
Rank 0.7
Rank 0.8
10 Rank 1.2
Rank 1.33
5 Poly. (Riverside Rank 1.2)
0
2
BRT 3
BB IB
4 5
DB D6
Brightness
21. COAL BREAKAGE AND GRINDABILITY
90 90
80 80
mass % passing T10 at 0.075kWh/t
Hardgrove Grindability Index
70 70
bright banded coals
60 60
INCREASING FINES
50 50
all data
40 40
30 30
dull coals rock
20 dull to dull w/minor bright 20
dull banded to interbanded
10 bright banded 10
HGI ALL COAL T YPES
0 0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Rank (Rvo)
Data from Esterle et al, 2000
22. COAL TYPES CAN ALSO HAVE DIFFERENT GRADES
STONE DULL+DM DB-BB
0 9% 32% 59%
Raw ash=24.3%
100 %<2mm after 20 drops=26%
B STHO STEM ING
M
AVERAGE Gl4 (27% of seam)
200 STONE DULL+DM DB-BB
LE
13% 33% 54%
Gl4
Raw ash=30.2%
LA
%<2mm after 20 drops=26.5
300
400
PLY 1 AVERAGE P123 (51% of seam)
STONE DULL+DM DB-BB
C AR E
500
H G
11% 42% 47%
Raw ash=27.6%
%<2mm after 20 drops=22.5
PLY 2
600
PLY3
700
800
AVERAGE P4 (22% of seam)
STONE DULL+DM DB-BB
2% 2% 95%
900 Raw ash=9.5%
PLY 4 %<2mm after 20 drops=32.2
1000
More partings, more dirt, higher ash RAMP 27 LD CORE
23. SO, IF YOU SHIFT THE
MINING SECTION
WHAT
CHARACTERISTICS
WILL OFTEN
CHANGE?
IF I’M LOOKING FOR
PERMEABILITY TO
DRAIN OR PRODUCT
GAS, WHAT WOULD I
TARGET?
24. PLIES ARE THE BASIS FOR COAL SAMPLING
•Core sample (good)
•Face sample (good)
•Grab sample (bad)
If the coal seam is thick, or has a lot of
vertical variability, it will have to be
subdivided usually on the basis of “plies”
or “benches”
Ply=designated unit of sampling, often
determined by stone partings or variation
in lithotypes
25. COAL TYPE-SCALES OF CHARACTERISATION
MEGASCOPIC MACROSCOPIC MICROSCOPIC
telovitrinite
BRIGHT BANDED
id
dv
sf
DULL
50 mm 250 microns
What do you notice in the texture between the different types? Scales?
26. MICROSCOPIC CLASSIFICATION-COAL MACERALS
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA maceral definition
microscopic organic component of coal consisting of an irregular mixture of different
chemical compounds. Macerals are analogous to minerals in inorganic rocks, but they
differ from minerals in that they have no fixed chemical composition and lack a definite
crystalline structure. Macerals change progressively both chemically and physically as
the rank of coal advances. (Rank constitutes position in the lignite-to-anthracite series
and is primarily based on increasing carbon content and increasing fuel value.)
Macerals for “black coal”, i.e. bituminous coal, are classified into three major
groups: vitrinite, inertinite, and exinite
Vitrinite (Huminite is the term used for brown coals and lignites)
is derived from woody plant tissue and includes the macerals collinite and telinite. Most
coals have a high percentage of vitrinites.
Inertinite
group comprises fusinite, micrinite, sclerotinite, and semi-fusinite [and inertodetrinite,
macrinite], which are all rich in carbon [due to primary oxidation from mouldering or
charring].
Liptinite (Exinite)
macerals, characterized by a high hydrogen content, include alginite, cutinite, resinite,
and sporinite [liptodetrinite, suberinite, exudatinite, bituminite, fluorinite….].
27. “Simple” 3 component system in reflected light (generally oil immersion)
•Vitrinite-will react when
heated up (gray stuff)
Liptinite Vitrinite •Inertinite-won’t react when
heated up (white stuff)
•Liptinite-will react, but you
may not always want it to
Inertinite
hole
28. All of these analyses attempt to quantify the chemistry of the
coal that will impact or on its behaviour during utilisation
For example during coking
Ward, 1984
The vitrinite will react; increasing
rank and vitrinite content will
Photomicrograph showing vitrinite-
semifusinite transition before (left) and after increase reactivity of the coal
(right) coking; Ro values given along
margins.photo courtesy of Taylor et al, 1998 during coking
29. Australian Standard 2856-1986/1995
bituminous coals MACERAL MACERAL SUBGROUP MACERAL ORIGINS
GROUP
*brown coal only VITRINITE TELOVITRINITE Textinite* Well preserved cell wall
Criteria for recognition Occurs as bands or lenses Texto-ulminite* Partially gelified cell wall
•colour Eu-ulminite*
Telocollinite
Completely gelified cell wall
Gelified cell wall and filling
•reflectance
DETROVITRINITE Attrinite* Sparsely packed matrix of cell
•morphology fragments
Occurs in matrix
•size Densinite* Finely packed matrix of cell
fragments
•polished relief Desmocollinite Gelified humic matrix
•fluorescence GELOVITRINITE Corpocollinite Gelified cell filling in tissue
(CT) in matrix (CM)
Occurs in matrix Porigelinite* Vesicular humic gel in matrix
Simple steps Poricorpocollinite Vesicular humic gelified cell
filling
•Is it grey, black or Eugelinite Humic gel
LIPTINITE LIPTINITE Sporinite, cutinite, Spores, waxes, resin, cuticle,
white? resinite, liptodetrinite suberin, algae, expulsed lipid,
•Is it Structured (telo), Occurs in matrix alginite, suberinite, etc
fluorinite,
unstructured attrital exsudatinite,
bituminite
(detro) or gelified INERTINITE TELO-INERTINITE Semifusinite Partially oxidised tissue of low
and moderate reflectance
(gelo)? Occurs as lenses (mouldering, char?)
•<20um grey? <30um Fusinite Oxidised tissue (char)
Sclerotinite/Funginite Fungal spore/test/stalk
white? DETRO-INERTINITE Inertodetrinite Oxidised cell wall fragment or
cell filling of moderate to high
Occurs in matrix reflectance
Reflected light, oil Micrinite Fine grained oxidised material
(<5microns)
immersion lenses GELO-INERTINITE Macrinite Oxidised gel
Occurs in matrix
30. SUMMARY
• COAL TYPE IS CONTROLLED BY INGREDIENTS
• It affects coal chemistry, texture, hardness, washability, and
utilisation properties
• INGREDIENTS ARE ORGANIC AND MINERAL
• INGREDIENTS CHANGE AS A FUNCTION OF:
– Depositional environment at time of peat formation
• Swamp, marsh, bog; near the coast, far up river
– Plant succession within the peat deposit (follows deposit
geometry)
– Palaeoclimate*
– Botanical evolution*
• INGREDIENTS RECORDED IN THE COAL LITHOTYPE PROFILE
31. Recommended Reading
Stopes, M.C., 1919: On the four visible ingredients in banded bituminous
coals. Proc. Royal Soc. 90B, 470-87.
Moore, T.A. and Shearer, J.C., 2003. Peat/coal type and depositional
environment—are they related? International Journal of Coal Geology 56,
233– 252.
Holdgate, G.R.; Kershaw, A.P.; Sluiter, I.R.K, 1995. Sequence
stratigraphic analysis and the origins of Tertiary brown coal lithotypes,
Latrobe Valley, Gippsland Basin, Australia. International Journal of Coal
Geology Volume: 28, Issue: 2-4, pp. 249-275.
Volkov, V. N., 2003. Phenomenon of the Formation of Very Thick Coal
Beds. Lithology and Mineral Resources, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2003, pp. 223–
232. Translated from Litologiya i Poleznye Iskopaemye, No. 3, 2003, pp.
267–278.