The document summarizes key concepts about chemical bonding. It discusses ionic bonding through the transfer of electrons to form cations and anions, and covalent bonding through the sharing of electron pairs. It describes different types of covalent bonds like single, double, and triple bonds. The shapes of molecules are explained using valence shell electron pair repulsion theory. Hybridization of atomic orbitals is introduced to describe molecular geometry and bonding in methane, ethene, and ethyne. Other topics covered include intermolecular forces, metallic bonding, and how bonding affects physical properties.
The document discusses chemical bonding and Lewis structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that holds atoms together, and discusses how atoms combine or share electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds. It then explains Lewis structures, showing how to draw the Lewis dot symbols and structures for various molecules by placing the atoms and distributing electrons to achieve full octets. Exceptions to the octet rule are also noted. Hybridization and theories of covalent bonding such as valence bond theory are introduced.
1. Covalent bonds form when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons in order to achieve a stable octet of electrons.
2. Molecules are formed when atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds, and molecular compounds are composed of molecules.
3. Molecular compounds tend to have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds and many are gases or liquids at room temperature.
The document discusses atomic structure and the periodic table. It explains that atomic number increases from left to right and top to bottom on the periodic table. Atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atomic mass values are decimals because they represent weighted averages of naturally occurring isotopes, which can have different numbers of neutrons while maintaining the same atomic number.
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter and are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Elements are pure substances made of only one type of atom, such as sodium (Na) or oxygen (O). Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine, resulting in a substance with totally new properties compared to the original elements. The periodic table provides information about each element's atomic number, chemical symbol, and atomic mass.
Metallic bonds and the properties of metalsKamal Metwalli
This document describes metallic bonding and the properties of metals and alloys. It explains that metallic bonding results from the delocalization of valence electrons among metal atoms, forming a "sea" of electrons. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the mobility of these electrons. The properties of a metal, such as its hardness and melting point, depend on the number of delocalized electrons. Alloys are mixtures of elements that are substitutional, with one metal replacing atoms of another, or interstitial, with smaller atoms filling holes in the metallic crystal structure.
Interatomic forces present in materials can predict their physical properties. Primary bonding involves valence electrons and includes ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent, and metallic bonds. Secondary bonding is weaker and includes London dispersion forces, polar molecule induced dipole bonds, and dipole-dipole bonds. Bonding energy and the shape of the potential energy curve between atoms varies between different materials and influences properties like melting temperature and thermal expansion.
This document summarizes the different types of chemical bonding: ionic bonding occurs between oppositely charged ions and is electrostatic in nature; covalent bonding involves sharing electrons between atoms and can range from partially ionic to completely covalent; metallic bonding is characterized by positive ions floating in a "sea" of delocalized electrons allowing metals to conduct electricity; van der Waals bonding is the weakest type and only present between inert gases due to induced dipole interactions. The document also discusses the different arrangements of spheres to model ion packing in cubic close, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close packing of metals.
A PERFECT POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FOR CHAPTER ATOMS AND MOLECULES FOR CLASS 9. IT COVERS ALL THE MAJOR CONCEPTS AND TOPICS OF THE CHAPTER. HOPE YOU LIKE IT.
The document discusses chemical bonding and Lewis structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that holds atoms together, and discusses how atoms combine or share electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds. It then explains Lewis structures, showing how to draw the Lewis dot symbols and structures for various molecules by placing the atoms and distributing electrons to achieve full octets. Exceptions to the octet rule are also noted. Hybridization and theories of covalent bonding such as valence bond theory are introduced.
1. Covalent bonds form when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons in order to achieve a stable octet of electrons.
2. Molecules are formed when atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds, and molecular compounds are composed of molecules.
3. Molecular compounds tend to have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds and many are gases or liquids at room temperature.
The document discusses atomic structure and the periodic table. It explains that atomic number increases from left to right and top to bottom on the periodic table. Atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atomic mass values are decimals because they represent weighted averages of naturally occurring isotopes, which can have different numbers of neutrons while maintaining the same atomic number.
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter and are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Elements are pure substances made of only one type of atom, such as sodium (Na) or oxygen (O). Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine, resulting in a substance with totally new properties compared to the original elements. The periodic table provides information about each element's atomic number, chemical symbol, and atomic mass.
Metallic bonds and the properties of metalsKamal Metwalli
This document describes metallic bonding and the properties of metals and alloys. It explains that metallic bonding results from the delocalization of valence electrons among metal atoms, forming a "sea" of electrons. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the mobility of these electrons. The properties of a metal, such as its hardness and melting point, depend on the number of delocalized electrons. Alloys are mixtures of elements that are substitutional, with one metal replacing atoms of another, or interstitial, with smaller atoms filling holes in the metallic crystal structure.
Interatomic forces present in materials can predict their physical properties. Primary bonding involves valence electrons and includes ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent, and metallic bonds. Secondary bonding is weaker and includes London dispersion forces, polar molecule induced dipole bonds, and dipole-dipole bonds. Bonding energy and the shape of the potential energy curve between atoms varies between different materials and influences properties like melting temperature and thermal expansion.
This document summarizes the different types of chemical bonding: ionic bonding occurs between oppositely charged ions and is electrostatic in nature; covalent bonding involves sharing electrons between atoms and can range from partially ionic to completely covalent; metallic bonding is characterized by positive ions floating in a "sea" of delocalized electrons allowing metals to conduct electricity; van der Waals bonding is the weakest type and only present between inert gases due to induced dipole interactions. The document also discusses the different arrangements of spheres to model ion packing in cubic close, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close packing of metals.
A PERFECT POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FOR CHAPTER ATOMS AND MOLECULES FOR CLASS 9. IT COVERS ALL THE MAJOR CONCEPTS AND TOPICS OF THE CHAPTER. HOPE YOU LIKE IT.
Group 2 metals produce characteristic flame colors when burned due to the metal ions present. Flame tests can be used to identify these metal ions based on the colors they produce: magnesium is white, calcium is orange/red, strontium is red/crimson, and barium is green/yellow-green. Group 2 metals react with oxygen, chlorine, and water through redox reactions where the metal is oxidized and the other substance is reduced. Reactivity increases down the group as it is easier to remove electrons and form ions with a 2+ charge. Carbonates and nitrates of group 2 metals also become more stable to thermal decomposition as you go down the group due to the decreasing charge density of the metal ions
Ionic bond seminar by Mohammad Nasih
in Kurdistan -Iraq
Kurdistan regional government
Ministry of higher education & scientific research
University scientific
Part chemistry
Introduction
Some Information & Properties about Ionic Bonding
Write Chemical Formula about this substance
Atoms gain or lose
Formation of Ions from Metals
Ions from Nonmetal Ions
Some Typical Ions with Positive Charges (Cations)
The document discusses the determination of lattice energy of ionic compounds using the Born-Haber cycle. It explains that the lattice energy of sodium chloride can be determined experimentally by considering its formation through two different methods. Method 1 is the direct combination of solid sodium and gaseous chlorine to form solid sodium chloride. Method 2 involves 5 steps including sublimation, dissociation, ionization, and combining to form ions and the ionic solid. Using Hess's law, the lattice energy is calculated by equating the enthalpy change between the two methods. For sodium chloride, the calculated lattice energy is -773.95 kJ/mol.
For Chem 1:
Significanceof the ELectron in Bonding
The Octet Rule
Lewis Symbol/Structures
Formal Charge
Polyatomic Ions
Types of Bonds (Ionic, Covalent, Coordinate Covalent, Metallic Bonds, Multiple Bonds)
Exceptions to the Octet Rules
Oxidation Number is not included in the class discussion and exam. ;D
This document defines molecular compounds and provides examples. It discusses that molecular compounds are composed of non-metal elements that are chemically bonded through covalent bonds where atoms share electron pairs. Examples of common molecular compounds are given such as gases, hydrocarbons, alcohols, carbohydrates, and biological molecules. Methods for drawing and naming molecular compounds such as Lewis dot diagrams and structural formulas are also outlined.
There are three main types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds. Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals, resulting in oppositely charged ions that are attracted to each other. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds are attractive forces between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, like oxygen or nitrogen, and another electronegative atom.
- An atom is the smallest unit of an element, and two or more atoms bonded together form a molecule. Molecules can be made of two or more identical atoms (such as oxygen, O2), or different elements (such as water, H2O).
- A compound is a molecule consisting of different types of atoms, while an element is made of only one type of atom. Common compounds include water, carbon dioxide, and table sugar.
- Molecular formulas use symbols to represent the elements and subscripts to show the number of atoms in a molecule, such as H2O for a water molecule. The number and type of atoms can vary between molecules of the same substance.
Ionic bonding occurs between metal and non-metal atoms when they form ions. Metals form positive ions by losing electrons, filling their outer electron shells. Non-metals form negative ions by gaining electrons. The oppositely charged ions are attracted in an ionic compound via electrostatic forces. Sodium chloride is an example where sodium atoms lose electrons to become Na+ ions and chloride atoms gain electrons to become Cl- ions. The ions are arranged in a crystal lattice structure held together by ionic bonds.
Coordination compounds (12th Maharashtra state board)Freya Cardozo
As per revised textbook 2019-2020. Ligands, Werners theory, Valence bond theory, Crystal field splitting theory, Application of coordination compounds, IUPAC
This document discusses the history and development of atomic theory. It describes how ancient Indian and Greek philosophers first proposed that matter is divisible into smaller particles. Democritus named these indivisible particles "atoms." Later, scientists like John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier established laws of chemistry, including the law of conservation of mass and the law of constant proportions, which supported the atomic theory. Dalton further proposed that elements are made of atoms that combine in whole number ratios. The document defines key concepts like molecules, ions, chemical formulas, and moles. It provides examples of atomic structure and molecular formulas of common compounds.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
This document describes the formation and properties of ionic compounds. Ionic bonds form when oppositely charged ions attract each other to form electrically neutral compounds. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because the ionic bonds between ions require a large amount of energy to overcome. The ions are tightly packed in a crystal lattice structure. Physical properties like conductivity depend on whether the ions are free to move or locked in place. Smaller or more highly charged ions result in stronger ionic bonds and higher lattice energies.
Ionic compounds are formed through ionic bonding between metals and nonmetals. Electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the nonmetal atoms, resulting in cations with positive charges and anions with negative charges. The electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound together in a crystalline lattice structure. Common polyatomic ions like nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate are also present in ionic compounds. Ionic compounds have properties like being solid at room temperature, having high melting points, and being good conductors of electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
This document discusses the formation of covalent bonds. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs between nonmetal atoms. There are three types of covalent bonds: single, double, and triple bonds which are formed by the sharing of one, two, or three electron pairs respectively. Examples of bond formation in H2, O2, and N2 molecules are provided to illustrate single, double, and triple bonds. The key differences between ionic and covalent bonds are that ionic bonds involve electron transfer between metals and nonmetals while covalent bonds involve electron sharing between nonmetals.
1. Carbon exists in three allotropic forms: diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
2. Diamond is extremely hard due to its rigid, three-dimensional covalent network structure where each carbon atom is bonded to four others in a tetrahedral shape. It is formed under high temperature and pressure deep in the Earth.
3. Diamond has many uses such as cutting, grinding, drilling, and jewelry due to its properties including hardness, high melting point, thermal conductivity, and brilliance when cut and polished. Synthetic diamonds are also produced for industrial applications.
Carbon belongs to the group IV of the periodic table.
It has four electrons in its outermost orbit, so its valency is four.
Carbon is a non-metal.
Why so many Carbon Compounds in nature
Because carbon is chemically unique.
Only carbon atoms have the ability to combine with themselves to form long chains
The number of carbon compounds is larger than that of all other elements put together.
Occurrence of carbon
The name ‘carbon’ is derived from the Latin
word ‘carbo’ meaning coal. Carbon is found in
nature in free as well as compound state. Carbon in
the free state is found as diamond and graphite, and
in the combined state in the following compounds.
1. As carbon dioxide and in the form of carbonates
such as calcium carbonate, marble, calamine
(ZnCO3)
2. Fossil fuel – coal, petroleum, natural gas
3. Carbonaceous nutrients – carbohydrates,
proteins, fats
4. Natural fibres – cotton, wool, silk
Properties of carbon
Allotropic nature of Carbon
Allotropy - Some elements occur in nature in more than one form. The chemical properties
of these different forms are the same but their physical properties are different. This
property of elements is called allotropy. Like carbon, sulphur and phosphorus also exhibit
allotropy.
Allotropes of carbon
A. Crystalline forms
1. A crystalline form has a regular and definite arrangement of atoms.
2. They have high melting points and boiling points.
3. A crystalline form has a definite geometrical shape, sharp edges and plane surfaces.
The document defines the mole concept as a quantity of particles that contains an equal number of atoms as 12 grams of carbon-12 (6.02 x 1023 particles). It also defines Avogadro's number (NA) as 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole. Examples are given of calculating the number of particles in 1 mole of various substances like sodium (Na), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and water (H2O). The document concludes with practice problems defining the mole concept and calculating moles, molecules, and atoms for different substances.
Ionic bonding occurs when atoms transfer electrons to form ions that are held together by electrostatic attraction. Metals transfer electrons to nonmetals to form positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. Sodium chloride forms when sodium loses an electron to become Na+ and chlorine gains that electron to become Cl-. The ions are then arranged in a repeating lattice structure held together by the attraction between the opposite charges. Ionic compounds have properties like high melting points, boiling points, and electrical conductivity due to their strong ionic bonds and crystalline lattice structure.
Presentation on Metallic Bond and its nature, presented by Engineer S.M. Wahid Mahmud from Daffodil International University from the department of Electronics & Telecommunication, Faculty of Science & IT.
Ionic bonding occurs when atoms of metals and non-metals combine to form ionic compounds. Atoms of metals will donate electrons to form cations, while atoms of non-metals will accept electrons to form anions. This transfer of electrons allows the atoms to achieve stable electron configurations similar to noble gases. Common examples are sodium chloride, which forms when sodium donates an electron to chlorine, and magnesium oxide, which forms when magnesium donates two electrons to oxygen. The chemical formulas of ionic compounds are written to balance the charges of the cation and anion.
chemical bonding and molecular structure class 11sarunkumar31
hybridisation, bonding and antiboding, dipole moment, VSPER theory, Molecular orbital diagram, Phosphorous pentachloride, ionic bond, bond order, bond enthalpy, bond dissociation, sp and sp2hybridisation, hydrogen bonding,electron pair,lone pair repulsion, resonance structure of ozone, how to find electron pair and lone pair, sp3 hybridization of methane.
Chemical bonds form between atoms to achieve more stable arrangements with lower potential energy. The main types of bonds are ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions, covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons, and metallic bonds result from delocalized electrons being shared among many atoms in a metal. The degree of ionic or covalent character in a bond depends on the electronegativity difference between the atoms. Molecular compounds are made of molecules held together by covalent bonds, while ionic compounds are made of ionic bonds between cations and anions.
Group 2 metals produce characteristic flame colors when burned due to the metal ions present. Flame tests can be used to identify these metal ions based on the colors they produce: magnesium is white, calcium is orange/red, strontium is red/crimson, and barium is green/yellow-green. Group 2 metals react with oxygen, chlorine, and water through redox reactions where the metal is oxidized and the other substance is reduced. Reactivity increases down the group as it is easier to remove electrons and form ions with a 2+ charge. Carbonates and nitrates of group 2 metals also become more stable to thermal decomposition as you go down the group due to the decreasing charge density of the metal ions
Ionic bond seminar by Mohammad Nasih
in Kurdistan -Iraq
Kurdistan regional government
Ministry of higher education & scientific research
University scientific
Part chemistry
Introduction
Some Information & Properties about Ionic Bonding
Write Chemical Formula about this substance
Atoms gain or lose
Formation of Ions from Metals
Ions from Nonmetal Ions
Some Typical Ions with Positive Charges (Cations)
The document discusses the determination of lattice energy of ionic compounds using the Born-Haber cycle. It explains that the lattice energy of sodium chloride can be determined experimentally by considering its formation through two different methods. Method 1 is the direct combination of solid sodium and gaseous chlorine to form solid sodium chloride. Method 2 involves 5 steps including sublimation, dissociation, ionization, and combining to form ions and the ionic solid. Using Hess's law, the lattice energy is calculated by equating the enthalpy change between the two methods. For sodium chloride, the calculated lattice energy is -773.95 kJ/mol.
For Chem 1:
Significanceof the ELectron in Bonding
The Octet Rule
Lewis Symbol/Structures
Formal Charge
Polyatomic Ions
Types of Bonds (Ionic, Covalent, Coordinate Covalent, Metallic Bonds, Multiple Bonds)
Exceptions to the Octet Rules
Oxidation Number is not included in the class discussion and exam. ;D
This document defines molecular compounds and provides examples. It discusses that molecular compounds are composed of non-metal elements that are chemically bonded through covalent bonds where atoms share electron pairs. Examples of common molecular compounds are given such as gases, hydrocarbons, alcohols, carbohydrates, and biological molecules. Methods for drawing and naming molecular compounds such as Lewis dot diagrams and structural formulas are also outlined.
There are three main types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds. Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals, resulting in oppositely charged ions that are attracted to each other. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds are attractive forces between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, like oxygen or nitrogen, and another electronegative atom.
- An atom is the smallest unit of an element, and two or more atoms bonded together form a molecule. Molecules can be made of two or more identical atoms (such as oxygen, O2), or different elements (such as water, H2O).
- A compound is a molecule consisting of different types of atoms, while an element is made of only one type of atom. Common compounds include water, carbon dioxide, and table sugar.
- Molecular formulas use symbols to represent the elements and subscripts to show the number of atoms in a molecule, such as H2O for a water molecule. The number and type of atoms can vary between molecules of the same substance.
Ionic bonding occurs between metal and non-metal atoms when they form ions. Metals form positive ions by losing electrons, filling their outer electron shells. Non-metals form negative ions by gaining electrons. The oppositely charged ions are attracted in an ionic compound via electrostatic forces. Sodium chloride is an example where sodium atoms lose electrons to become Na+ ions and chloride atoms gain electrons to become Cl- ions. The ions are arranged in a crystal lattice structure held together by ionic bonds.
Coordination compounds (12th Maharashtra state board)Freya Cardozo
As per revised textbook 2019-2020. Ligands, Werners theory, Valence bond theory, Crystal field splitting theory, Application of coordination compounds, IUPAC
This document discusses the history and development of atomic theory. It describes how ancient Indian and Greek philosophers first proposed that matter is divisible into smaller particles. Democritus named these indivisible particles "atoms." Later, scientists like John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier established laws of chemistry, including the law of conservation of mass and the law of constant proportions, which supported the atomic theory. Dalton further proposed that elements are made of atoms that combine in whole number ratios. The document defines key concepts like molecules, ions, chemical formulas, and moles. It provides examples of atomic structure and molecular formulas of common compounds.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
This document describes the formation and properties of ionic compounds. Ionic bonds form when oppositely charged ions attract each other to form electrically neutral compounds. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because the ionic bonds between ions require a large amount of energy to overcome. The ions are tightly packed in a crystal lattice structure. Physical properties like conductivity depend on whether the ions are free to move or locked in place. Smaller or more highly charged ions result in stronger ionic bonds and higher lattice energies.
Ionic compounds are formed through ionic bonding between metals and nonmetals. Electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the nonmetal atoms, resulting in cations with positive charges and anions with negative charges. The electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound together in a crystalline lattice structure. Common polyatomic ions like nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate are also present in ionic compounds. Ionic compounds have properties like being solid at room temperature, having high melting points, and being good conductors of electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
This document discusses the formation of covalent bonds. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs between nonmetal atoms. There are three types of covalent bonds: single, double, and triple bonds which are formed by the sharing of one, two, or three electron pairs respectively. Examples of bond formation in H2, O2, and N2 molecules are provided to illustrate single, double, and triple bonds. The key differences between ionic and covalent bonds are that ionic bonds involve electron transfer between metals and nonmetals while covalent bonds involve electron sharing between nonmetals.
1. Carbon exists in three allotropic forms: diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
2. Diamond is extremely hard due to its rigid, three-dimensional covalent network structure where each carbon atom is bonded to four others in a tetrahedral shape. It is formed under high temperature and pressure deep in the Earth.
3. Diamond has many uses such as cutting, grinding, drilling, and jewelry due to its properties including hardness, high melting point, thermal conductivity, and brilliance when cut and polished. Synthetic diamonds are also produced for industrial applications.
Carbon belongs to the group IV of the periodic table.
It has four electrons in its outermost orbit, so its valency is four.
Carbon is a non-metal.
Why so many Carbon Compounds in nature
Because carbon is chemically unique.
Only carbon atoms have the ability to combine with themselves to form long chains
The number of carbon compounds is larger than that of all other elements put together.
Occurrence of carbon
The name ‘carbon’ is derived from the Latin
word ‘carbo’ meaning coal. Carbon is found in
nature in free as well as compound state. Carbon in
the free state is found as diamond and graphite, and
in the combined state in the following compounds.
1. As carbon dioxide and in the form of carbonates
such as calcium carbonate, marble, calamine
(ZnCO3)
2. Fossil fuel – coal, petroleum, natural gas
3. Carbonaceous nutrients – carbohydrates,
proteins, fats
4. Natural fibres – cotton, wool, silk
Properties of carbon
Allotropic nature of Carbon
Allotropy - Some elements occur in nature in more than one form. The chemical properties
of these different forms are the same but their physical properties are different. This
property of elements is called allotropy. Like carbon, sulphur and phosphorus also exhibit
allotropy.
Allotropes of carbon
A. Crystalline forms
1. A crystalline form has a regular and definite arrangement of atoms.
2. They have high melting points and boiling points.
3. A crystalline form has a definite geometrical shape, sharp edges and plane surfaces.
The document defines the mole concept as a quantity of particles that contains an equal number of atoms as 12 grams of carbon-12 (6.02 x 1023 particles). It also defines Avogadro's number (NA) as 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole. Examples are given of calculating the number of particles in 1 mole of various substances like sodium (Na), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and water (H2O). The document concludes with practice problems defining the mole concept and calculating moles, molecules, and atoms for different substances.
Ionic bonding occurs when atoms transfer electrons to form ions that are held together by electrostatic attraction. Metals transfer electrons to nonmetals to form positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. Sodium chloride forms when sodium loses an electron to become Na+ and chlorine gains that electron to become Cl-. The ions are then arranged in a repeating lattice structure held together by the attraction between the opposite charges. Ionic compounds have properties like high melting points, boiling points, and electrical conductivity due to their strong ionic bonds and crystalline lattice structure.
Presentation on Metallic Bond and its nature, presented by Engineer S.M. Wahid Mahmud from Daffodil International University from the department of Electronics & Telecommunication, Faculty of Science & IT.
Ionic bonding occurs when atoms of metals and non-metals combine to form ionic compounds. Atoms of metals will donate electrons to form cations, while atoms of non-metals will accept electrons to form anions. This transfer of electrons allows the atoms to achieve stable electron configurations similar to noble gases. Common examples are sodium chloride, which forms when sodium donates an electron to chlorine, and magnesium oxide, which forms when magnesium donates two electrons to oxygen. The chemical formulas of ionic compounds are written to balance the charges of the cation and anion.
chemical bonding and molecular structure class 11sarunkumar31
hybridisation, bonding and antiboding, dipole moment, VSPER theory, Molecular orbital diagram, Phosphorous pentachloride, ionic bond, bond order, bond enthalpy, bond dissociation, sp and sp2hybridisation, hydrogen bonding,electron pair,lone pair repulsion, resonance structure of ozone, how to find electron pair and lone pair, sp3 hybridization of methane.
Chemical bonds form between atoms to achieve more stable arrangements with lower potential energy. The main types of bonds are ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions, covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons, and metallic bonds result from delocalized electrons being shared among many atoms in a metal. The degree of ionic or covalent character in a bond depends on the electronegativity difference between the atoms. Molecular compounds are made of molecules held together by covalent bonds, while ionic compounds are made of ionic bonds between cations and anions.
Chemical bonds form between atoms to achieve more stable arrangements with lower potential energy. The type of bonding depends on differences in electronegativity between atoms. Ionic bonds form between ions, covalent bonds involve shared electron pairs, and metallic bonds result from delocalized electrons shared among many atoms in a lattice. Molecular geometry and intermolecular forces also influence molecular properties.
CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTUREniralipatil
Chemical bonding can occur via ionic bonds or covalent bonds. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, leaving cation and anion. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons via overlapping orbitals. The octet rule states that atoms seek to obtain eight electrons in their valence shell. Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals for bonding. Common hybridizations include sp, sp2, and sp3 which determine molecular geometry. Bond properties like order, length, energy are influenced by hybridization.
Chemical bonding xi , dr.mona srivastava , founder masterchemclassesDR MONA Srivastava
Viewers,
This ppt of chemical bonding is designed to give a complete idea and though conceptual extract of the topic for the students of XI to help them understand the basics of chemical bonding in chemistry. Hope it covers all important aspects and points .
Dr Mona Srivastava
Founder-
Masterchemclasses
The document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that binds two atoms together within a molecule. It then discusses the different types of bonds ranked by decreasing bond strength - ionic, covalent, coordinate, hydrogen, and Van der Waals. Ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons from metals to nonmetals. Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The document also discusses bond parameters such as bond length, bond order, bond energy, bond angle, and dipole moment. It introduces concepts such as Lewis structures, formal charge, resonance structures, and hybridization. It concludes with an overview of valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory.
This document provides an overview of chemical bonding. It defines a chemical bond as a force of attraction between atoms or ions that holds atoms together in molecules or compounds. Atoms form bonds to achieve stable electron configurations. There are three main types of bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals. Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electrons, usually between nonmetals. Metallic bonds involve the pooling of electrons between metal atoms. The document further explores bond formation and properties.
Chemical bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of valence electrons between atoms. Valence electrons play an important role in bond formation as atoms seek to achieve stable electronic configurations like noble gases. There are two main types of bonds:
1) Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons from metals to nonmetals, resulting in positively charged cations and negatively charged anions that are attracted to each other.
2) Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electron pairs between nonmetals. Atoms share electrons to achieve stable octet configurations. Single, double, and triple covalent bonds are distinguished by the number of electron pairs shared.
Lewis structures use dots or crosses to represent valence
It's very good for SPM students . You have to learn the ionic bond thoroughly. If you understand well you can explain it vividly. For other chemistry notes can email me puterizamrud@gmail.com or facebook Pusat Tuisyen Zamrud .
This document provides an overview of chemical bonding concepts including:
- The octet rule which states that main group elements form ions to achieve 8 valence electrons.
- Ionic and covalent bonds are formed through the transfer or sharing of electrons respectively.
- Lewis structures are used to represent electron pairing in molecules and predict molecular geometry based on electron pair repulsion.
Ionic bonding occurs through the transfer of electrons between atoms to form ions, resulting in electrostatic attraction. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms to form molecules. The shape of covalently bonded molecules can be predicted using VSEPR theory. Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces are weaker intermolecular forces that influence properties like boiling points. Bonding types exist on a continuum between purely ionic and purely covalent.
This document provides notes on covalent bonding concepts including:
- The octet rule and how atoms form bonds to gain or lose electrons
- Ionic, covalent, and polar covalent bonds defined by electron transfer and sharing
- Bond polarity determined by electronegativity differences
- Molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular geometry
- Intermolecular forces of dispersion, dipole, and hydrogen bonding explained
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
The document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structure. It defines a chemical bond as an attractive force that holds atoms together in a molecule or ion. It explains different theories of chemical bond formation, including covalent and ionic bonding. Factors that favor ionic bond formation are discussed. The octet rule for bonding is explained along with its significance and limitations. Molecular shapes are predicted using the VSEPR model for different molecules. Dipole moments are also discussed.
This document defines chemical bonding and describes the three main types of bonds: metallic, ionic, and covalent. Metallic bonds form a crystalline lattice structure with freely moving electrons. Ionic bonds form when ions with opposite charges are attracted to each other via electrostatic forces. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to achieve stable electron configurations. The type of bonding determines various physical properties like melting point, hardness, and conductivity.
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Atoms combine through chemical bonds to achieve stability. There are different types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds form through electron transfer between metals and non-metals, covalent bonds form through electron sharing between non-metals, and coordinate covalent bonds form through lone pair donation by one atom that is shared by both atoms. The octet rule drives bonding as atoms seek to acquire a stable noble gas configuration by gaining or sharing electrons to complete their outer shell. Hybridization of atomic orbitals also influences molecular geometry and bond angles.
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Chemistry zimsec chapter 4 chemical bonding
1. CHAPTER 4: Chemical Bonding
4.1 Ionic Bonding
4.2 Covalent Bonding
4.3 Shapes of Molecules
4.4 Electronegativity, Bond Polarity, Bond Length and Bond Energy
4.5 Intermolecular Forces
4.6 Metallic Bonding
4.7 Bonding and Physical Properties of Substances
Learning outcomes:
(a) describe ionic (electrovalent) bonding, as in sodium chloride and magnesium oxide, including
the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams.
(b) describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams,
(i) covalent bonding, as in hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide,
methane, ethene.
(ii) co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, as in the formation of the ammonium ion and in the
Al2Cl6 molecule.
(c) explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using the qualitative model of
electron-pair repulsion (including lone pairs), using as simple examples: BF3 (trigonal), CO2
(linear), CH4 (tetrahedral), NH3 (pyramidal), H2O (non-linear), SF6 (octahedral), PF5
(trigonal bipyramid).
(d) describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving σ and π bonds, including the
concept of hybridisation to form sp, sp² and sp³ orbitals.
(e) explain the shape of, and bond angles in, ethane and ethene in terms of σ and π bonds.
(f) predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules analogous to those specified in (c) and (e).
(g) describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water as simple examples of molecules
containing N-H and O-H groups.
(h) understand, in simple terms, the concept of electronegativity and apply it to explain the
properties of molecules such as bond polarity and the dipole moments of molecules.
(i) explain the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity and use them to compare the
reactivities of covalent bonds.
(j) describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces), based on permanent and induced
dipoles, as in CHCl3(l); Br2(l) and the liquid noble gases.
(k) describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by mobile electrons.
2. (l) describe, interpret and/or predict the effect of different types of bonding (ionic bonding,
covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, other intermolecular interactions, metallic bonding) on
the physical properties of substances.
(m) deduce the type of bonding present from given information.
(n) show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers associated with the
breaking and making of chemical bonds.
3. 4.1 Ionic Bonding
Formation of ionic bond
1) Ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely-charged
ions formed by the complete transfer of electrons from an atom to another
atom.
2) Ionic bond is also called electrovalent bond.
3) i. An atom(usually a metal) that loses electron(s) will form a positive ion(cation).
ii. The electron is then transferred to another atom.
iii. The atom that gains the electron(usually a non-metal) will form a negative
ion(anion).
iv. The cations and anions are then attracted by strong electrostatic force of
attraction. The force of attraction constitutes the ionic bond.
4) The force of attraction between cation and anion is very strong, therefore ionic
bond is a very strong bond.
5) Ionic bonds are non-directional, each cation will attract any neighbouring anion
and vice versa to form a huge ionic lattice.
6) The compound formed as a result of ionic bond is called ionic compound. An
example is sodium chloride, NaCl.
Dot-and-cross diagram
1) A dot-and-cross diagram shows:
i. the outer electron shell only.
ii. that the charge of the ion is spread evenly using a square bracket.
iii. the charge of each ion.
2) It is also called the Lewis diagram.
4. 3) Using dot-and-cross diagram to represent the formation of ionic bond:
Strength of ionic bonds
1) The strength of ionic bond is a measure of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ions.
2) The force of attraction between the oppositely-charged
ions is proportional to the charge on the ions and
inversely proportional to the square of distance between the ions.
3) The strength of ionic bond is manifested in the melting point of the ionic
compound.
4) i. For instance, the melting point of NaCl is higher than NaBr.
ii. This is because the size of Br⁻ ion is larger than Cl⁻ ion. Therefore the distance
between Br⁻ and Na⁺ is larger than that of between Cl⁻ and Na⁺.
iii. As a result, the electrostatic force of attraction between Na⁺ and Cl⁻ is stronger
than that of between Na⁺ and Br⁻ ion.
5) i. The melting point of NaCl is lower than MgCl2.
ii. This is because Mg²⁺ ion has a higher charge than Na⁺ ion. Besides that, the
size of Mg²⁺ ion is smaller than Na⁺ ion.
iii. The above two factors causes the electrostatic force of attraction between
Mg²⁺ and Cl⁻ to be stronger than that of between Na⁺ and Cl⁻.
E ∝
(Q⁺) (Q⁻)
d²
5. 4.2 Covalent Bonding
Formation of covalent bond
1) Covalent bond is the electrostatic force of attraction that two neighbouring nuclei
have for a localised pair of electrons shared between them.
2) Covalent bond is formed without transferring electrons, instead, the atoms
share their valence electron(s) to achieve duplet/octet electronic configuration.
3) The shared pair of electrons constitutes the covalent bond.
4) Using dot-and-cross diagram to represent the formation of covalent bond:
Single bond
1) Single bond is formed when one pair of electrons is shared between two
atoms.
2) Examples of compounds with single bonds:
Formation of hydrogen
gas, H₂
Formation of oxygen gas,
O₂
6. Double bond
1) Double bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
2) Examples of compounds with double bonds:
Triple bond
1) Triple bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
2) Examples of compounds with triple bonds:
Lone pair and bond pair of electrons
1) The pair of electrons used in covalent bonding is called the bond pair while the
pair of electrons not used in covalent bonding is called the lone pair.
7. Octet-deficient and expanded octet species
1) In general, atoms tend to share their electrons to a achieve a duplet/octet
electronic configuration - the octet rule.
2) i. In octet-deficient species, the central atom has less than eight electrons.
ii. Some examples are boron trifluoride, BF3 and nitrogen monoxide, NO.
4) i. In expanded octet species, the central atom has more than eight electrons.
ii. An example is phosphorus(V) chloride, PCl5.
iii. This is possible only for Period 3 elements and beyond, this is because starting
from Period 3, the atoms have empty d orbitals in the third energy level to
accommodate more than eight electrons.
Co-ordinate bond (dative covalent bond)
1) A co-ordinate bond is formed when one atom provides both the electrons
needed for a covalent bond.
2) Conditions of forming a co-ordinate bond:
i. one atom has a lone pair of electrons.
ii. another atom has an unfilled orbital to accept the lone pair, in other words,
an electron-deficient species.
3) Once the bond is formed, it is identical to the other covalent bonds. It does not
matter where the electrons come from.
4) In a displayed formula, a co-ordinate bond is represented by an arrow, the head
of the arrow points away from the lone pair which forms the bond.
Expanded octetOctet deficient
8. 5) An example is the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride. In this
reaction, ammonium ion is formed by the transfer of hydrogen ion(an octet
deficient species) from hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons in the
ammonia molecule.
6) Another example is aluminium chloride. At high temperature, it exists as AlCl3.
At low temperature(around 180-190°C), it exists as Al2Cl6, a dimer(two
molecules joined together). This is possible because lone pairs of electrons from
the chlorine atom form co-ordinate bonds with the aluminium atom.
Tips to draw dot-and-cross diagram for covalent molecules
1) Identify the central atom and terminal atom(s). For example, in ammonia, the
nitrogen is the central atom while the hydrogens are the terminal atoms.
2) During the sharing of electrons, the terminal atoms must attain octet
configuration(or duplet for hydrogen) but not necessarily for the central atom.
3) i. If the central atom is from Period 2 of the Periodic Table, the total number of
electrons surrounding it cannot exceed eight(but can less than eight).
ii. If the central atom is from Period 3 and beyond, the total number of electrons
surrounding it can exceed eight.
9. 4) i. For polyatomic anions, the negative charge will be distributed among the
most electronegative atom(s). This is to decrease the charge density on a
particular atom and to stabilise the ion.
ii. For polyatomic cation, the positive charge will be distributed among the less
electronegative atom(s). The reason is same as above.
5) If the terminal atom already has octet configuration(for example, Cl⁻), it will
contribute two electrons to the central atom to form a co-ordinate bond.
4.3 Shapes of Molecules
Valence shell electron pair repulsion(VSEPR) theory
1) All electrons are negatively-charged, so they will repel each other when they are
close together.
2) So, a pair of electrons in the bonds surrounding the central atom in a molecule
will repel the other electron pairs. This repulsion forces the pairs of electrons
apart until the repulsive forces are minimised.
3) The amount of
repulsion is as
follow:
4) General steps to determine the shape of a molecule:
i. determine the number of valence electrons in the central atom.
ii. find the total number of electrons surrounding the central atom by adding the
number of shared electrons to it. (Dot-and-cross diagram might be necessary)
iii. find the number of electron pairs by dividing the total number of electrons by
two.
iv. determine how many pairs is/are bond pairs and lone pairs. (A double bond
or triple bond is counted as one bond pair)
v. refer to the table to obtain the shape of the molecule
10.
11. Effect of lone pair on bond angle
1) For methane, ammonia and water, the electron pair
geometries are tetrahedral. However, the molecular
geometries are different.
2) In methane, all the bonds are identical, repulsion between the
bonds is the same. Thus, methane has a perfect tetrahedral
structure with bond angle 109.5°.
3) In ammonia, the repulsion between the lone pair and the bond
pairs is stronger than in methane. This forces the bond angle to
decrease slightly to 107°.
4) In water, there are two lone pairs and thus the repulsion is the greatest, the two
bond pairs are pushed closer to one another and the bond angle is reduced to
104.5°.
Effect of electronegativity on bond angle
1) Water and hydrogen sulfide have the same general
shape with the same number of bond pairs and lone
pairs. However, their bond angles are different.
2) This is because oxygen has a higher electronegativity than sulphur. The bond
pairs of electrons are closer to the oxygen atom compared to the sulfur atom.
3) This results in greater repulsion in the O-H bonds than in the S-H bonds.
Therefore, the bond angle increases from 92.5° to 104.5°.
Sigma(σ) bond and pi(π) bond
1) A sigma bond is formed by orbitals from two atoms overlapping end-to-end.
2) In a sigma bond, the electron density is concentrated between the two nuclei.
12. 3) A pi bond is formed by the p orbitals from two atoms
overlapping sideways.
4) In a pi bond, there are two regions of high electron density
alongside the nuclei.
5) A pi bond is weaker than a sigma bond because the overlapping of charge
clouds is less than in a sigma bond.
6) In covalent molecules, single bonds are sigma bonds(σ), a double bond
consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond(1σ, 1π), and a triple bond
consists of one sigma bond and two pi bonds(1σ, 2π).
Hybridisation
1) Hybridisation is the mixing of atomic orbitals to produce a new set of hybrid
orbitals of equivalent energies. This is a theory used to account for the
discrepancies in explaining the shapes of covalent molecules.
2) There is a problem with simple view on methane, CH4.
Methane has two unpaired electrons only in its outer
shell to share with the hydrogen atoms, but the formula of methane is not CH2.
3) The concept of hybridisation is used to account for this discrepancy.
4) General steps in hybridisation:
i. promotion of electron.
ii. mixing of orbitals to produce a new set of hybrid orbitals of equivalent
energies(sp, sp² or sp³ hybrid orbitals)
iii. forming of a new molecular orbital.
13. sp³ hybridisation
1) An example of compound which undergoes sp³
hybridisation is methane, CH4.
2) The carbon atom uses some energy to promote one of
its electron from 2s to empty 2p orbital so that there
are four unpaired electrons for covalent bonding.
3) The carbon now is said to be in an excited state(C*).
4) The orbitals then 'mix' or hybridise to produce four
hybrid orbitals of equivalent energies. The new
orbitals are called sp³ hybrid orbitals because they are made from one s orbital
and three p orbitals.
5) Each hybrid orbital has one big lobe and one small lobe. They
rearrange themselves so that they are as far as possible to form a
tetrahedral geometry. The hybrid orbitals are 109.5° apart.
6) The s orbitals from the hydrogen atoms then
overlap with the four hybrid orbitals to form
four sigma bonds because the overlapping is
end-to-end. All the bonds are identical.
7) Another example is ethane, C2H6. The two
carbon atoms undergo sp³ hybridisation to form four hybrid orbitals. The two
carbon atoms are bonded by overlapping one of their hybrid orbitals. The
remaining ones then overlap with the s orbitals of the hydrogen atoms.
8) The bond angle is approximately 109.5°. This is an approximation because all
the bonds are not identical.
C* :
C :
14. sp² hybridisation
1) An example of compound which undergoes sp² hybridisation is ethene, C2H4.
2) The same thing happens as in sp³
hybridisation, except that this time the
carbon atoms 'mix' or hybridise three of the four orbitals only because the
carbon atom is bonding with three other atoms only.
3) This produces three sp² hybrid orbitals because they
are made from one s orbital and two p orbitals. Another p
orbital remains unchanged and it is perpendicular to
the plane containing the hybrid orbitals.
4) The hybrid orbitals rearrange themselves so that they are as far as possible, that
is, a trigonal planar arrangement, the hybrid orbitals are 120° apart.
5) The hybrid orbitals then overlap with s orbitals
from the hydrogen atoms and another hybrid
orbital from the other carbon atom to form
five sigma bonds. The remaining p orbitals
overlap sideways to form a pi bond. A double
bond is formed between the two carbon atoms.
6) Another example is boron trichloride, BCl3. The boron atom undergoes sp²
hybridisation to produce three sp² hybrid orbitals. The hybrid orbitals rearrange
themselves to form a trigonal planar geometry. The p orbitals from chlorine
atoms then overlap with the hybrid orbitals to form three sigma bonds.
15. sp hybridisation
1) An example of compound which undergoes sp hybridisation is ethyne, C2H2.
2) The same thing happens as in sp³ and sp² hybridisation,
except that this time the carbon atoms 'mix' or hybridise
two of the four orbitals only because the carbon atom is bonding with two
other atoms only.
3) This produces two sp hybrid orbitals because they are
made from one s orbital and one p orbital. The other two p
orbitals remain unchanged and they are perpendicular to
each other and to the two hybrid orbitals.
4) The hybrid orbitals rearrange themselves so that they are as far as possible, that
is, a linear arrangement, the hybrid orbitals are 180° apart.
5) The hybrid orbitals overlap with the s orbitals from the hydrogen atoms and to
the hybrid orbital from the other carbon atom to form three sigma bonds.
The remaining p orbitals overlap sideways to form two pi bonds. A triple
bond is formed between the two carbon atoms.
Example of covalent molecule with multiple hybridisations
1) In carbon dioxide, CO2, the carbon atom
undergoes sp hybridisation while the
oxygen atoms undergo sp² hybridisation.
The overlapping of the hybrid and p
orbitals are shown in the diagram.
16. 4.4 Electronegativity, Bond Polarity, Bond Length
and Bond Energy
Electronegativity
1) Electronegativity is the ability of an atom which is covalently bonded to the other
atom to attract the bond pair of electrons towards itself.
2) The more electronegative an atom is, the higher the tendency of that atom to
attract the bond pair of electrons towards itself.
3) The Pauling scale is commonly used to quantify the value of electronegativity
of a particular element.
4) Fluorine is the most electronegative element because of its small size, followed
by oxygen and nitrogen.
Trends of electronegativity values in the Periodic Table
1) i. The value of electronegativity increases across a
Period(from left to right).
ii. This is because the number of proton increases across
a Period. Therefore the amount of positive charge in
the nucleus also increases.
iii. The shielding effect by inner electrons remains constant.
iv. Therefore the attraction towards the bond pair of electrons increases, making
it more electronegative.
2) i. The value of electronegativity decreases
down a Group.
ii. This is because the size of the atoms
increases down a Group. Therefore the
distance between the nucleus and the bond
pair of electrons also increases.
iii. The shielding effect by inner electrons is also greater.
iv. Therefore the attraction towards the bond pair of electrons decreases, making
it less electronegative.
17. Bond Polarity
1) i. When two covalently-bonded atoms have the same
electronegativity, the electron cloud is evenly distributed between the two
atoms.
ii. The bond is described as a 'pure' covalent bond or non-polar bond.
iii. Some examples are H2, Cl2 and Br2.
2) i. However, when an atom is more electronegative than
the other, the more electronegative atom will attract the
bond pair of electrons more towards itself. The electron cloud is not evenly
distributed or distorted.
ii. The more electronegative end acquires a partial negative charge while the less
electronegative end acquires a partial positive charge.
iii. The bond is said to be polarised, or, a polar bond.
iv. Some examples of compound which contain polar bond(s) are HCl and CH4.
v. The molecule is described as 'covalent with some ionic character'.
3) i. When the electronegativity difference between the two atoms is very great, the
less electronegative atom will lose its electrons and the more electronegative
atom will gain the electrons.
ii. An ionic bond will be formed.
Polar and non-polar molecules
1) A molecule is polar, and thus, has a dipole moment(μ ≠ 0) if:
i. the bonds are polarised
ii. the dipole of the bonds do not cancel out each other(in other words, it is
asymmetrical)
2) The dipole moment, μ is the product of charges and the distance between the
centre of the charges.
18. 3) Examples:
4) A liquid containing polar molecules can be
deflected by a charged rod brought near to it. This
is because there is a positive end and a negative end
in polar molecules. So, irregardless of the charge on
the rod, one end of the molecule will always be
attracted towards the charged rod.
5) When polar molecules are placed in an electric
field, the positive end of the molecule will face
towards the negative terminal while the negative
end of the molecule will face towards the positive
terminal.
6) Generally, polar molecules are more reactive than non-polar molecules because
many chemical reactions are started by a reagent attacking an electrically-
charged end of the polar molecule. An example is CO is more reactive than N2
although both of them have triple bonds because CO is polar while N2 is not.
Bond length and bond energy
1) Bond length is the distance between two nuclei of two atoms
joined by a covalent bond.
2) Bond energy is the energy needed to break one mole of covalent bonds between
two atoms in the gaseous state.
A-B(g) → A(g) + B(g) ∆H° = +x J
4) i. The shorter the bond length, the stronger is the bond.
ii. The greater the bond energy, the stronger is the bond.
iii. Hence, the shorter and bond length, the greater the bond energy.
19. 4.5 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular and intramolecular forces
1) i. Intramolecular force is the force of
attraction that hold individual atoms
together in a molecule.
ii. Commonly referred to as covalent bonds.
2) Intermolecular force is the force of attraction between one molecule and
the neighbouring molecule.
3) There are several types of intermolecular forces:
4) Intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.
5) Intermolecular forces are responsible for the melting and boiling points of
substances, as well as their physical states.
Permanent dipole-dipole forces(Keesom forces)
1) Polar molecules have a negative end and a
positive end. The oppositely-charged ends
will attract one another. The forces of attraction is called permanent dipole-
dipole forces.
2) Only polar molecules will experience permanent dipole-dipole forces.
Permanent dipole-dipole forces
Intermolecular forces
van der Waals' forces Hydrogen bond
- Permanent dipole-dipole forces
(Keesom forces)
- Temporary dipole-induced dipole forces
(Dispersion forces or London forces)
20. Temporary dipole-induced dipole forces(Dispersion forces or London forces)
1) Electrons are mobile, and constantly revolving around the nucleus. Even in non-
polar molecules, there is a high possibility that at any given instant, the electron
density is higher on one side than the other.
2) This will result in the formation of temporary dipole(or instantaneous dipole)
because it only lasts for just a tiny fraction of time.
3) In the next instance, the distribution of electron density will change and the
molecule has a new temporary dipole.
4) The temporary dipole set up can distort the
electron charge clouds of the neighbouring
molecules, giving rise to induced dipoles.
5) The forces of attraction between
temporary dipoles and induced dipoles
give rise to dispersion forces.
6) All molecules(polar and non-polar) will experience dispersion forces. For
polar molecules, permanent dipole-dipole forces exist in addition with
dispersion forces.
Factors affecting strength of dispersion forces
1) Number of electrons in the molecule(Size of molecule)
- As the number of electrons increases, the size of the molecule also increase.
- This causes the attraction between the nucleus and the electrons to get weaker,
the electrons become progressively easier to be distorted.
- This causes more temporary dipoles to be set up and the dispersion forces get
stronger.
- The boiling point of halogens increases going down the Group. The size of
the molecules increases and thus the van der Waals' forces become stronger.
2) Number of contact points between the molecules(Surface area)
- For two molecules of the same number of electrons, the one which has a larger
surface area has more contact points between the molecules.
- The more contact points between molecules, more temporary dipoles can be
set up and the dispersion forces become stronger.
21. - Butane is a long chain molecule while 2-methypropane is more spherical
(more compact). This causes the number of contact point between butane
molecules to be more than in 2-methypropane.
- Therefore the van der Waals' forces of
attraction in butane is stronger than in
2-methypropane. This causes the
boiling point of butane to be higher.
Hydrogen bonding
1) Hydrogen bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between a hydrogen atom
(which is covalently bonded to a small and highly electronegative atom) and the
lone pair of electrons of another small and highly electronegative atom.
2) The 'small and highly electronegative atoms' are fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen.
3) The conditions necessary for forming hydrogen bonds:
i. a hydrogen atom bonded directly to a small and electronegative
atom, causing it to acquire a significant amount of partial positive charge.
ii. a lone pair of electrons from the small and electronegative atom.
4) The attraction between the hydrogen atom and the lone pair of electrons
constitutes the hydrogen bond.
5) The evidence of hydrogen bonding:
- H2O, HF and NH3 have
exceptionally high boiling points
compared to other compounds
with greater number of electrons.
- This suggests that there must be
an additional intermolecular force
other than van der Waals' forces
exists between them.
- This additional intermolecular force is called the hydrogen bond.
6) H2O has a higher boiling point compared to NH3 and HF. This is because a
H2O molecule can form, on average four hydrogen bonds. In NH3, the number
of hydrogen bonds is restricted by the one lone pair of electrons in the NH3
molecule. In HF, it is restricted by the number of hydrogen atoms.
22. The peculiar properties of water
1) Solid ice is less dense than liquid water
- Most solids are denser than their liquids, this is because in the solid state, the
molecules are packed closer and occupies smaller volume.
- However, solid ice is less dense than liquid water.
- This is because in the solid state, the water
molecules are bonded to each other through
hydrogen bonding to form a giant
3-dimensional tetrahedral structure. This
structure has a lot of empty spaces in between
the water molecules.
- When heat is supplied, some of the hydrogen bond breaks down and the rigid
structure collapses, filling up the spaces in between them, thus decreasing the
volume occupied and increasing its density.
2) Solubility of substances in water
- Most covalent compounds are not soluble water while ionic compounds are.
- However, some covalent compounds are soluble in water because they can
form hydrogen bonds with water, some examples are ammonia and alcohols
3) High boiling point of water
- The boiling point of water is exceptionally high compared to other Group 16
hydrides(see graph at page 21).
- This is because water molecules are capable of forming hydrogen bonds
between themselves. This additional type of intermolecular forces increases its
boiling point significantly.
4) High surface tension and viscosity
- Water has a high viscosity. This is because hydrogen bonding reduces the
ability of water to slide over each other, making it more viscous.
- Water has a high surface tension. This is because hydrogen bonds also exert a
significant downward force at the surface of liquid.
23. 4.6 Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonds
1) Metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the delocalised
electrons and the positive metal ions.
2) Take sodium as an example, in the solid state,
sodium atoms are packed so closely together that the
3s orbitals(containing an electron) overlap with one
another to form a giant molecular orbital.
3) The 3s electrons is then free to move throughout the
lattice structure, it is no longer bound to any sodium
atom. The electrons are said to be delocalised. The delocalised electrons are
sometimes referred to as 'sea of delocalised electrons'.
4) The attraction between the delocalised electrons and the positive metal ions
constitutes the metallic bond.
Factors affecting the strength of metallic bonds
1) Number of electrons in the sea of delocalised electrons
- The more the number of electrons delocalised, the stronger the metallic
bond.
- For example, the melting point of magnesium is higher than sodium.
- This is because one magnesium atom can donate two electrons from its outer
shell into the sea of delocalised electrons while sodium can only donate one.
- There is twice amount of delocalised electrons in magnesium than in sodium.
So, the metallic bond in magnesium is stronger due to the stronger attraction.
2) Size of the metal
- The smaller the size of the metal, the stronger the metallic bond.
- For example, the melting point of magnesium is lower than beryllium
although both of them have two electrons delocalised per atom.
- This is because the size of magnesium is bigger, causing the attraction between
the delocalised electrons and the positive nucleus to be weaker. The shielding
effect in magnesium is also more than in beryllium.
- So, the metallic bond in magnesium is weaker than in beryllium.
24. 4.7 Bonding and Physical Properties of Substances
Physical state at room temperature
1) Ionic compounds
- Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature, this is because the ionic
bond holding the oppositely-charged ions is very strong, a lot of energy is
required to overcome the strong forces of attraction.
2) Covalent compounds
- Most simple covalent molecules(like water and ammonia) are liquids or gases
at room temperature. This is because the intermolecular force between the
molecules is weak, little energy is required to overcome it.
- Some simple covalent molecules(like iodine) are solids because the
intermolecular force between them is strong enough.
- For giant covalent structures(like diamond and silicon dioxide), they are solids
at room temperature. This is because the covalent bonds holding the atoms
are very strong, a lot of energy is required to overcome it.
3) Metals
- Metals(except mercury) are solids at room temperature. This is because the
metallic bond holding the metal ions is very strong, a lot of energy is required
to overcome it.
Electrical conductivity
1) Ionic compounds
- Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state, this is because
the ions are not free to move.
- In the molten or aqueous state, it conducts electricity because the ions are free
to move(mobile ions are present).
2) Covalent compounds
- Simple covalent molecules do not conduct electricity because the ions are not
free to move.
- Some giant covalent structures(like graphite) are able to conduct electricity
because the electrons are free to move(delocalised). (See also Chapter 5)
25. 3) Metals
- Metals conduct electricity because the delocalised electrons are free to move.
Solubility
1) Ionic compounds
- Most ionic compounds are soluble in water(polar solvents) and insoluble in
non-polar solvents.
- This is because in non-polar solvents, the molecules are held together by weak
intermolecular forces. The ionic bonds in ionic compounds are much stronger
and the energy needed to break them is high. If ion-solvent bonds are formed,
the energy released is not enough to compensate the energy absorbed,
making the entire structure unstable.
[ Note: To form ion-solvent bonds, the ion-ion(ionic bond) and solvent-solvent
(van der Waal's forces) bonds must be broken first. ]
- While in polar molecules, there is an attraction between polar molecules
and the ions. So, the energy released when ion-solvent bonds are formed is
enough to compensate the energy needed to break the strong ionic bonds.
2) Covalent compounds
- This is because when a covalent molecule is dissolved in a non-polar solvent,
the molecule-solvent attraction is strong enough to compensate the energy
needed to break the weak van der Waal's forces between covalent molecules.
- While when dissolved in polar solvents, the energy needed to break the
attractions in polar solvents is too high. The energy released when molecule-
solvent attraction set up is not enough to compensate it. This makes the
structure to gain energy overall, making it less stable.
- Some covalent compounds react with water rather than dissolving in it. For
example, hydrogen chloride reacts with water to form hydrogen ions and
chloride ions, and the ions are soluble.
3) Metals
- Metals do not dissolve in polar and non-polar solvents.
- However, some metals like sodium and calcium can react with water.