The document discusses different types of sentences and clauses. It defines simple, compound, and complex sentences. It also defines different clause types including main clauses and subordinate clauses. Finally, it analyzes clause elements such as subjects, objects, complements, and adverbials from both syntactic and semantic perspectives.

1. :
7.1 Simple and Complex Sentences
The Simple Sentence: consists only of one independent clause, or it is finite clause which
stands alone (it gives a complete meaning).
e.g. I like my mother.
I study English.
He smiled.
The Compound Sentence: It consists of two or more independent clauses.
e.g. I like John and John likes me.
Independent clause (main) conjunct independent (main)
The Complex Sentence: It consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate (dependent
clause) e.g. We shut the door before the animal escaped.
main clause subordinate clause
Sentences: that is, sentences consisting of only one clause.

2. A sentence which consists of one or more subordinate clause. Each
subordinate clause may be superordinate to one other clauses;
e.g. I think that you can do it, if you try.

3. Obligatory clause elements are: Subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial
We can usefully distinguish seven clause types which we may designate in:
-MAJOR
-MINOR
Clause Types:Minor
Minor Type: S V Od Cs
John made Mary a good husband. (John was a good husband to Mary)

5. Note: Sometimes the Od, C, and A, are obligatory and sometimes they are optional.
They are obligatory because they are required, the complementation of the verb and
for meaning, if we omit them the sentence will be incomplete.
The patterns of 7.2 can be expanded by the addition of various optional objects and
adverbials.
The Students are on vacation. SVA
The students seemed happy. SVCs

6. One way of distinguishing the various clause types
is by means of transformational relations, or
relations of grammatical paraphrase.
Clauses containing a noun phrase as object can be
changed into other elements by:
1.Passivization
2. Paraphrase

7. 1.
Passivization be + -ed2 + (by phrase)
Active : Jack wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written (by Jack).
Active; Helen will do the work.
Passive: The work will be done (by Helen).
Active: My sister washes the dishes every day.
Passive: The dishes are washed every day (by my sister).
The (O object) assuming the function of subject (V pass = passive verb
phrase), the subject appearing (if at all) in an optional by phrase,
symbolized here as [A]:
Many critics disliked the play (S V Od)
= The play was disliked (by many critics) (S V pass [A])

8. Where the passive draws more attention to the result than to the action:
1.Get– replaces be →
Passive: The window was broken by my younger son.
Passive: I know how the window got broken.
2.Become = expresses A gradually achieved result:
e.g. With the passage of time, the furniture became covered in dust.
The following examples illustrate the passive with other clause types:
Queen Victoria considered him a genius. (S V O C)
He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria. (S V pass Cs [A])
An intruder must have placed the ladder there. (S V Od Aloc.)
The ladder must have been placed there by an intruder. (S V pass Aloc. [A])
My father gave me this watch. (S V Oi Od)
I was given this watch by my father. (S V O [A])
[(
This watch was given me by my father. (S V pass Oi [A
3.Type SVOO clauses have two objects, they often have two passive forms.

9. There is sometimes equivalence between types SV,
SVC, and SVA
as is shown by occasional equivalences of the
following kind:
1. S V = S V Cs
The baby is sleeping = The baby is asleep.
2. S V = S V A
He hurried. = He went fast.
3. S V C s = S V A
He is jobless = He is without a job.

10. An SVOC clause is often equivalent to a clause with an infinitive or that clause:
I imagined her beautiful.
I imagined her to be beautiful.
I imagined that she was beautiful.
1. SVOC = SVC → This equivalence shows that the O and the C of an SVOC
clause in the same relation as the S and C of an SVC
She elected him the captain. (SVOCo)
= He was the captain. (SV intensive Cs)
2. The SVOA = SVA = By intensive relation
He put the book on the shelf . SVOA
= The book was on the shelf. SVA
3. SVO O clauses can be transformed into SVO A clauses by the substitution of a
prepositional phrase for the indirect object, with a change of order.
She sent Jim a card. (SVOO)
= She sent a card to Jim. (SVOA)
She left Jim a card = She left a card for Jim.
To and for, in their recipient senses, are the prepositions chiefly involved
but others, such as with and of are occasionally found:
I' ll play you a game of chess = I’ll play a game of chess with/against you.
She asked Jim a favour → She asked a favour of Jim.

11. It must be borne in mind that one verb can belong, in various senses, to a number of
different classes, and hence enter into a number of different clause types.
No SV
The verb get is a particularly versatile one:
SVC: He’s getting angry.
SVA: He got through the window.
SVO: He’ll get a surprise.
SVOC: He got his shoes and socks wet.
SVOA: He got himself into trouble.
SVOO: He got her a splendid present.
Through the multiple class membership of verbs, ambiguities can arise:
She called him a steward.
could be interpreted either as SVOC or as SVOO.

12. a) is normally a noun phrase or a clause with nominal
function
e.g. The clever boy did the work
carefully.
S = NP
b) occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately
after the operator in questions
Jack is reading. Is Jack
reading?
Operator Operator
c) has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb
phrase.
The boy is clever. The boys are clever.
The woman is a doctor. She is a good mother.
Clause elements syntactically defined:

13. Clause elements syntactically defined:
An OBJECT
a) like a subject, is a noun phrase or clause with nominal
function
He is reading a book.
Object = NP
normally follows the subject and the verb phrase.
(
b
c) by the passive transformation, assumes the status of
subject.
Active: Alex kicked the ball.
Passive: The ball was kicked (by Alex).

14. Clause elements syntactically defined:
An OBJECT

15. A COMPLEMENT (Subject or Object)
a) is a noun phrase, an adjective phrase, or a clause with nominal
function, having a co-referential relation with the subject (or object)
b) Cs = follows the subject, verb phrase (intensive
verbs)
He is kind. Cs = adj.
He is a doctor. Cs = np.
The assumption is [that things will improve]. Cs = a clause
Co
Co = follows the S. and Vp (complex transitive verbs)
She considered him clever. Co= adj.
We elected him the captain of the team. Co =
np.
(
c) does not become subject through the passive transformation

16. An ADVERBIAL may be:
i) an adverb phrase
They study carefully.
ii) A noun phrase
I saw him last week.
iii) Adverbial clause
When I saw my friend, I greeted him.
iv) or prepositional phrase
They put the books on the table.
b) is generally mobile, i.e. is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause.
He carefully does the work.
He does the work carefully.
c) is generally optional
(Sometimes) he sings (beautifully),
i.e. may be added to or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability, BUT:
Sometimes they are obligatory.
adverbial of the SV A and SVO A patterns are obligatory.
We are in the classroom. (SVA)
They put the kettle on the stove. (SVOA)

17. Clause elements semantically
considered:
Semantic roles of clause elements
Participants
Every clause describes a situation which involves one or more PARTICIPANTS,
i.e. entities realized by noun phrases. We find two participants in (1):
Unfortunately, their child broke my window yesterday. (1)
The sentence in (1) contains a verb describing the nature of the action, a subject
denoting an agentive participant (the doer of the action), and a direct object denoting
the affected participant. In addition, it contains an adverbial evaluating the situation
(unfortunately) and an adverbial locating the situation in time (yesterday).
Participants: NP.S in the sentence (Subjects and Objects).
Subject = agentive participant = the doer of the action.
Direct object = affected participants.
Verb = describes the nature of the action.
Adverbial = different functions evaluating the situation, locating the situation
in time, ------

18. Subject
1-Agentive
John opened the letter.
2-Instrumental
The stone broke the window.
3-Locative
That hill is low.
4-Temporal
Tomorrow is my birthday.
5-Eventive
The concert is on Wednesday.
6-Recipient
She has a camera.
7-Affected
The window was broken by the boy.

19. Subject
Agentive, affected, recipient, attribute:
The most typical semantic role of a subject is AGENTIVE:
1. Agentive (personal, animate, being instigating of the action):
John opened the letter.
The man hit the enemy.
2. Instrumental (non-personal, inanimate, instigator of the action):
The stone broke the window.
The key opened the door.
The storm destroyed the village.
3. Locative (showing place or position):
That hill is low.
Chicago is windy.
London is a large city.

20. Subject
4. Temporal subjects (showing time):
Tomorrow is my birthday.
The subject can be replaced by empty it
It is my birthday tomorrow.
5. Eventive (abstract noun heads indicating activities or arrangements):
The concert is on Wednesday.
6. Recipient subjects:
a. With stative verbs such as: (have ,own, possess, etc.)
She has a camera.
He owns a house.
b. Verbs indicating a mental state.
He likes interesting novels.
I thought that you were mistaken.
c. Perceptual subjects
Foolishly, he tasted the soup.

21. Subject
7. Affected subjects:
a. Passive. The boy broke the window.
The window was broken by the boy.
b. With Intensive verbs.
He got angry.
c. With intransitive verbs.
They are walking on the sides of the street.
d. The empty subject [it] or the [prop it] which refers to nothing.
It is raining.
It is cold.

22. Direct Object:
1. AFFECTED
Participant; i.e. a participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the
happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way
The key opened the door.
Many MPs (Members of Parliament) criticized the Prime Minister.
2. Locative (showing place or position)
They climbed the mountain.
They reached the village.
3. Effected. The effected O exists by virtue of the activity indicated by the
verb.
For example:
Baird invented the television. (no television without invention)
He wrote a letter.
B. Cognate Object. The object repeats partially or wholly the meaning of the
verb.
They have fought a good fight. They sing a song.
C. Verbal noun preceded by a common verb of general meaning.
He did little work that day.
He made several attempts to contact me.

23. The Indirect Object

24. Object Complement

25. 7.17 Summary
Although the semantic functions, of the elements
(particularly S and O
)
are quite varied, there are certain clear restrictions,
such as that the object
cannot be ‘agentive’ or ‘instrument’; that a subject
(except in the passive
)
cannot be ‘effected’; that an indirect object can have
only two functions
—
those of ‘affected’ and ‘recipient’. The assignment o f a
function to the
subject seems to have the following system of
priorities.
*

26. Summary
If there is an ‘agentive’, it is S; if not,
If there is an ‘instrument’, it is S; if not,
If there is an ‘affected, it is S; if not,
If there is a ‘locative’ or ‘temporal’ or
‘eventive’, it may be S; if not,
The prop word it is S
Naturally, where the passive transformation
applies, it transfers the role of the direct or
indirect object to the subject.

27. :
Reference
A University Grammar of English
Randolph Quirk-Sidney Greenbaum
Chapter 7
Prepared by: Afrah k. Rashid
University of Mosul / College of Arts /
Department of English / Third Year
/ Second Semester / Evening Class