In order to learn clearly writing effective sentences you can use it.

1. Writing Effective Sentences
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete
thought. Sentences always have a subject and a verb.
What is a subject?
The subject of a sentence is the person or thing which does/
performs an action. Subjects can either be "simple" (composed
of a single pronoun, noun or noun phrase), "compound" or "
complex“.
E.g. Chala looked in the mirror. In this example, "Chala" is
the subject because the action of looking was
performed by
him.

2. Cont’d
Simple subject is a noun or pronoun that does a given
action.
E.g I met her this morning. (“I” is a simple subject)
A complex subject consists of a noun phrase and any words,
phrases or clauses that modify it.
E.g. The man who has stolen my bag was arrested. (The
complex subject is in bold).
A compound subject: consists of two or more noun phrases
(and their modifiers if any) joined together with a
coordinating conjunction.
E.g.The man and the woman walked over to the telephone.
The compound subject here is the whole phrase, "the man
and the woman."

3. Cont’d
What is a predicate?
The predicate is the part of the sentence which makes a
statement or asks a question about the subject.
E.g1. Thomas bought the black sheep. In this example, the
underlined part is known as verb phrase (in modern)/ predicate
(traditionally)
E.g2. Abebe went to the library. The predicate of this sentence is "
went to the library", since the subject is never part of the
predicate, and "Abebe" is the subject.
Objects
The object of a sentence can be a noun, pronoun, or word group
that acts as a noun, and receives the action of a verb or is
influenced by a transitive verb, verbal (a word derived from a
verb, i.e., gerund, infinitive, and participle), or a preposition.
There are two types of objects: Direct object and Indirect object

4. Cont’d
Direct object: Receives the action of a verb or verbal and
frequently follows it in a sentence. Direct objects are often
needed to complete the thought of a sentence. "Almaz reads
the newspaper." "Almaz reads" is a complete sentence, but it
doesn't express the complete thought. Almaz reads what?
She reads the newspaper.
Indirect object: Usually the indirect object comes first.
E.g. Abebe gave me a book . If the direct object is placed
first, prepositions (to or for) are used before the indirect
object.
E.g.- Abebe gave a book to me.
-My father bought a book for me.
The indirect object tells for whom, to whom, or to what
something is done. “His father bought him a car." His father
bought a car, for whom? For him. Him is the indirect object.

5. Sentence Types(Based on their Structure)
There are billions of sentences out there that we might
have to understand. All these sentences fall into just
four categories. They are:
-Simple Sentence
-Compound Sentence
-Complex Sentence
-Compound-Complex sentence
A/ Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent
clause. It is a sentence containing one main clause and
no subordinate clauses. It contains one subject and one
verb.
Example 1:
-The girls are playing basketball.
-Does this seem a normal activity?
-I love to read simple sentences.

6. Cont’d
Example 2: Being an English teacher with a desire for syntactical
complexity, I love to read simple sentences upon getting up
and before going to bed. (It is longer, more challenging and
contains bigger words, but it is still a simple sentence.)
B/ Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more independent
clauses (main clauses).
A compound sentence contains two or more independent /
main clauses joined by a conjunction such as for, and, nor, but,
or yet, so or we can spell these as FANBOYS.
Example:
She opened the bag and took out a book.
I love conjunctive adverbs, but my students love each other.
(The independent clauses are underlined. This sentence
contains no dependent clauses)

7. Cont’d


Sometimes a compound sentence contains more than two
independent clauses.
Example: I love conjunctive adverbs; my students love each
other, and we all love holidays.
We can link independent clauses with semi-colon or colon to
form compound sentences.
Example:
I met Chala yesterday; he has just come out of hospital.
Or I met Chala yesterday: he has just come out of hospital.
We can also link independent clauses with semi-colon or
colon followed by a connecting adverb (however,
nevertheless, meanwhile, after all, finally etc)
Example: He performed very well in the interview; however, he
didn’t get the job. Or He performed very well in the interview:
however, he didn’t get the job.

8. Cont’d
C/ Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one
independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
The most common type of complex sentence uses adverb
clauses. Adverb clauses contain subordinating
conjunctions such as: when, while, although, after, because,
if, before, unless, until, as, since etc.
A complex sentence is like a simple sentence in that it
consists of only one main clause, but unlike a simple
sentence it has one or more subordinate clauses
functioning as an element of the sentence. Example:
We will go home when the football match is finished.

9. Cont’d


D/ Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses. It is a compound sentence formed by
combining two related sentences: either a simple
sentence and a complex sentence or two complex
sentences.
Example:
Because you are a banking and finance student, some
people expect you to serve customers perfectly, and
other people expect you to help them perfectly.(The
dependent clause is underlined, and the independent
clauses are in bold.)
Abebech doesn’t like cartoons because they are loud,
so she doesn’t watch them.(This sentence has

10. Sentence Kinds (Based on Their Functions)
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A. Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence makes a statement; it gives information,
expresses/describes ideas, things, events, persons or places.
A declarative sentence ends with a period.
Example:
The house will be built on a hill.
The children are playing with the dog.
B. Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It usually needs answer
from another body. An interrogative sentence ends with a question
mark.
Example:
Where are my keys?
How did you find the card?

11. Cont’d
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
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C. Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling, emotion,
and excitement or admire. An exclamatory
sentence ends with an exclamation mark.
Example:
What a kind thing to do!
The silly boy!
What a beautiful night!
Well done!

12. Cont’d

D. Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a command or order to do
something.
Example:
-Bekele, try the other door.
-Go out of the room.
-Work hard.
Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence (you)
is understood.
Example: Look in the closet. (You, look in the closet.)

13. Clauses and Phrases in writing sentences
Clauses
A group of related words containing a subject and a
predicate. Types of clauses: There are two types of
clauses. These are:
1. Main (independent) clause: An independent clause can
stand by itself as a complete sentence.
Example:
Maria left work early because she was ill. (Maria
left work early is an independent clause.) The one in
bold is subordinate clause.

14. Cont’d
2. Subordinate (dependent) clause: A subordinate clause
cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence.
Subordinate or dependent clauses are introduced by
using dependent clause markers or subordinating
conjunctions such as since, because, although, even
though, as , as soon as, after, before, when, until, if,
whenever, wherever etc and relative pronouns. A
subordinating conjunction is a word which joins a
dependent clause and an independent clause together.
Example:
Maria left work early because she was ill. (Because she
was ill is not a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone
as a sentence.) and it is subordinate clause.

15. Cont’d
Phrases
A group of related words that lacks a subject, or a
predicate, or both and that acts as a single part of speech.
Example: The tallest boy is (under the tree), having done
the assignment, climbing the mountain
(are phrases).
Types of Phrases: There are five types of phrases.
These are:-
1. Noun Phrase – a word or a group of words that go with
noun. The head for noun phrase is noun.
Example: Kebede bought the black sheep. ( sheep is
the head of the sentence)

16. Cont’d
2. Verb phrase- a word or a group of words that has/have a
verb in it.
Example: The work will have been completed by tomorrow.
3. Prepositional Phrase – a word or group of words that
has/have a preposition. The head for prepositional phrase
is preposition.
Example: Chala killed the lion with the gun.
4. Adjectival Phrase- The head for adjectival phrase is an
adjective.
Example: His voice is more audible.
5. Adverbial Phrase- The head for adverbial phrase is an
adverb.
Example: She speaks more carefully.

17. Faulty Sentences
Faulty sentences are those with different errors or problems
that may create communication barrior among the
communicators.
1. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a word or word group that is capitalized
and punctuated as a sentence, but it does not contain both a
subject and a verb or that does not express a complete thought.
It is a dependent (subordinate) clause unattached to a complete
sentence.
It therefore, fails to express a complete thought or to be a
sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself.

18. Cont’d
Examples:
Nega, a friend I have known since 1986 (E.C)
and excellent at math. He asked if I had finished
writing my thesis. (The underlined part lacks a
verb)
We canceled the event. Because we were not
prepared. (The underlined part is a subordinate
clause unattached to the complete sentence.)

19. Cont’d
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There are several reasons why a group of words seem to act like a sentence but not
have ability to make it as a complete thought.
Locating something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of
phrases, but lacking a proper subject-verb relationship with an independent clause.
Example: In Ethiopia, just before the fall of Derg. (There are no subject and verb.)
Describing something, but there is no subject-verb relationship.
Example: Working far into the night in an effort to raise her children.
Having subject-verb relationship, but still missing an important part of a verb string.
Example: Some of the students working in IT laboratory. (It misses auxiliary verb.)
Having a subject-verb relationship, but being subordinated to another idea by a
dependent word.
Example: Even though he had good arguments.

20. 2.Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence (also known as a fused sentence)
consists of two or more complete thoughts placed within
the same sentence without any punctuation to separate
them. Each thought could stand alone as a complete
sentence.
A run-on sentence is long, confusing sentence whose
parts are not connected closely enough.
Example: Run-on: Political science is a difficult course I am thinking of
dropping it and taking it next year.
Correct: Political science is a difficult course. I am thinking of
dropping it and taking it next year.

21. How to Correct Run-On Sentence



We may use five basic ways of correcting a run-on sentence.
1. Using period and capital letter
Create two separate sentences. End the first thought with a period and begin the next with
a capital letter. Example: My friend will visit me this weekend. I probably will not have
much time to work.
2. Using semicolon
Determine the independent clauses. Separate those two or more independent clauses with
a semicolon.
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend; I probably will not have much time to work.
3. Using comma
Join the two thoughts by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for,
nor, so, or yet.)
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend, so, I probably will not have much time to work.

22. Cont’d


4. Using subordinate clauses
Subordinate one thought to the other. To do this, make one thought into
a dependent clause by adding a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
Example: Since my friend will visit me this weekend, I probably will not have
much time to work.
5. Using conjunctive adverb
Determine the independent clauses. If there are only two independent clauses,
separate them with a semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma. Conjunctive
adverbs are however, consequently, therefore, hence, thus, as a result, etc.
Example: The boy ate his dinner; however, his sister played quietly in the corner.

23. Cont’d
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Exceptions to the rules
Short, closely related independent clauses in a
sequence can be joined by a comma only.
Example: he came, he saw, he conquered.
If the second independent clause is a tag question,
a comma may be used between the clauses.
Example: He answered the questions, didn’t he?

24. 3.Comma Splices
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
o
o
A comma splice (or comma fault) is a frequently committed
type of grammatical error. It contains two independent
clauses joined by a comma (the coordinating conjunction is
missing).
You can spot a comma splice by looking at your use and
placement of commas. If you see a comma between two
independent clauses but no coordinating conjunction after the
comma, then you have spotted a comma splice. However,
having two independent clauses together leaves the writer
with two options:
To write them as separate sentences, or
To join them (by comma and coordinating conjunction)

25. Cont’d
The separated clauses may require period (.), semicolon (;),
question mark (?), or exclamation mark depending on the
sentence types. The second clause begins with capital letter.
Example:
Comma Splice: I got up late this morning, I didn’t eat my
breakfast.
Correct:-I got up late this morning. I didn’t have time for
breakfast.
-I got up late this morning; I didn’t eat my breakfast.
-I got up late this morning, so, I didn’t eat my breakfast.

26. 4.Dangling Modifiers
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A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says
something different from what is meant because words are
left out.
It is not clearly and logically related to the words it modifies.
A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed
immediately by the word it is meant to describe. Otherwise,
the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes
unintended meaning.
Dangling modifiers create confusion and sometimes
unintentional humor.

27. Cont’d
Example:
Dangling: Flood damage was visible crossing the river. [The
modifier makes it sound as though the flood damage was
crossing the river.]
Correct: Flood damage was visible as we cross the river
Dangling: Taking the exam, the room was so stuffy that Paula almost
fainted. (Who took the exam? The answer is not the room
but
Paula. The subject Paula must be added.)
Correct: Taking the exam, Paula found the room so stuffy that she
almost fainted.

28. Cont’d
There Are Two Ways to Revise Dangling Modifiers
1. Add a word or words that the modifier clearly describes.
Place the new material just after the modifier, and
rearrange other parts of the sentences as necessary.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While watching the television Sarah burned the
cake.
2. Change the dangling modifier to a subordinate clause.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While Sarah was watching television, the cake
burned.

29. 5.Misplaced Modifiers
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
A misplaced modifier is simply a word, a phrase, or a
clause describing something, but not placed near
enough to the word it is supposed to modify.
Misplaced modifiers, because of awkward placement,
do not describe the words the writer intended them to
describe.
Example:
Misplaced: I saw a dress in a magazine that cost $ 1200
[Did the magazine or the dress cost $ 1200?]
Correct: In magazine, I saw a dress that cost $ 1200.

30. Kinds of Misplaced Modifiers
i. Misplaced adjectives
These are incorrectly separated from the nouns they
modify and almost always distort the intended meaning.
Misplaced adjective: My friend invited me food a
delicious for breakfast this morning.
Correct: My friend invited me a delicious food for
breakfast this morning.

31. Cont’d

ii. Placement of adverbs
This can also change the meaning in sentences.
Example: -Only poets write poem for the country’s
occasion.
-Literature instructors read only literary works.
Each of these sentences says something logical but
quite different, and its correctness depends upon
what the writer has in mind.

32. Cont’d
iii. Misplaced phrases
These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a
meaning that does not make sense. To fix such problem, we put the
phrases next to the word they are supposed to modify.
Example:
Misplaced phrase: They saw a fence behind the house made of
barbed wire.
Correct: They saw a fence made of barbed wire behind the house.

33. Cont’d
iv. Misplaced clauses
These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and
may create a meaning that does not make a sense. To fix
errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to
the noun they are supposed to modify.
Misplaced clauses: I read the book yesterday that the
teacher recommended.
Correct: I read the book that the teacher recommended
yesterday.

34. Cont’d
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To Sum up
Here are some tips to help you avoid misplaced modifiers:
Check to see if your modifiers are close to the subject
they are referring to.
Be careful with the placement of limiting modifiers
(almost, even, hardly, just, merely, nearly, and simply).
These modifiers must be placed right next to the
words they modify.
Check to see if modifiers that describe verbs are close
to the verbs.

35. Agreement Errors



A verb must agree with its subject in number. A
subject that refers to one person, place, or thing is
called a singular subject. A subject that refers to
more than one thing is called a plural subject.
Guidelines
A singular subject must be used with a singular verb.
E.g. The dog wants to go jogging with me.
A plural subject must be used with a plural verb.
E.g. The dogs want to go jogging with me.

36. Cont’d
Mistakes to Watch for
Subject-verb agreement errors often occur in the
following situations:
1. with compound subjects (two or more subjects)
Example:
Incorrect: Samuel and Sarah wants to buy a car.
Correct: Samuel and Sarah want to buy a car.
2. When the verb comes before the subject
Incorrect: There is four gas stations on the main street.
Correct: There are four gas stations on the main street.

37. Cont’d
3. When a word or phrase comes between the subject and the
verb.
Incorrect: The woman standing in the waves with the other
swimmers
win a prize for her endurance.
Correct: The woman standing in the waves with the other
swimmers
wins a prize for her endurance.
4.With indefinite pronouns: treat the pronoun as singular if it
refers to something that cannot be counted. Treat the pronoun as
plural if it refers to more than one of something that can be
counted.
Incorrect: Everybody wish to become a millionaire.
Correct: Everybody wishes to become a millionaire.

38. Cont’d
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
Compound Subject
The word “compound” means “made up of two or more
parts.” Two or more words can be compounded or
linked by joining them with any of
three words: and, or, and nor
Example:
The ranger or the camper sees the bear.
The ranger and the camper see the bear.
Two or more singular (or plural) subjects joined
by and act as a plural compound subject and take
a plural verb (singular + singular = plural).

39. Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement


Pronouns need to agree with the word they replace
in number, gender, and person (just as verbs must
agree with their subjects.). If the antecedent is
singular, feminine, and third person, so is its pronoun,
“Aster did not like her grammar grade." The singular,
feminine, third person noun - Aster - demands a
pronoun of the same sort - her.
NUMBER: Indefinite pronouns like anyone or everybody
present a problem in agreement. They don't need
antecedents, and their number is unclear to many people.

40. Cont’d
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Anyone coming to the party should bring his costume.
Anybody coming as Dracula should bring his fangs.
Everyone who shows up as Barney should return to her
home.
Everybody who does the Trekie bit should check her
phasers at the door.
Everything is not as bad as it seems.
Nothing that happened is what it seems.
One should never forget her manners.
Someone forgot his coat.
Somebody forgot his goat.

41. Faulty Parallelism
Parallelism means that words, phrases or clauses in
a series should have similar grammatical form.
Keeping corresponding parts of a sentence parallel
in structure and length will make your writing clearer
and easier to read or understand.
Items to be parallel in a sentence
1. Words in series: When two or more nouns, verbs, or
adjectives appear together in a sentence, they should
be parallel in grammatical form. Verbs should be in the
same tense.

42. Cont’d
Example:
Incorrect: All night long the music from the next apartment was
banging, thumping, and pounded so loudly that I
couldn’t sleep.
Correct: All night long the music from the next apartment was
banging, thumping, and pounding loudly so that I couldn’t
sleep.
2. Phrases
Incorrect: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky
clothes, and to go to classic music.
Correct: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky
clothes, and going to classic music.

43. Cont’d
3. Clauses
Incorrect: While Almaz studied Math and worked on
Psychology, her husband was watching the
baby.
Correct: While Almaz studied Math and worked on
Psychology, her husband watched the baby.

44. Punctuation and capitalization

A. Punctuation Marks
Punctuation is the use of standard marks and signs in writing
to separate words into sentences, clauses, and phrases in
order to clarify meaning.
Here are the punctuation marks that are most commonly
used when writing and the most typical way or ways they
are
used.
1. Period (.)
Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence
which states an idea). Example: That was a wonderful movie.

45. Cont’d
Use a period to end an abbreviation.
Example: I think that Mr. Williams is a great teacher.
2. Question Mark (?)
Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative
sentence (a sentence which asks a question).
Example: Did you like that movie?
3. Comma (,)
Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series.
Example: My history class meets each Monday, Wednesday, and
Friday.

46. Cont’d
Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a
sentence.
Example: We wanted to go to the beach, but it rained that
day.
Use a comma after introductory words or phrases in a
sentence.
Example: Certainly, I have my homework right here.
Use a comma to set off dates and addresses.
Example: My friend Jane, who was born June 18, 1992,
lives in
Akron, Ohio.

47. Cont’d
4. Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when two independent clauses in a
sentence are not separated by a conjunction (such as "and").
Example: I like pizza; Carlos also likes pizza.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses in a
sentence that are separated by any of the following
transitional words or phrases: accordingly, consequently, for
example, for instance, furthermore, however, instead,
moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, and therefore.
Example: I planned to study Saturday morning; however, the
power in our house went out due to a storm.

48. Cont’d
Use a semicolon when the items in a series of items contain
commas.
Example: I have lived in Los Angeles, California; Boston,
London; Trenton, New Jersey; and Philadelphia.
5. Colon (:)
Use a colon before a list that is preceded by a complete independent
clause. Some form of the word "follow" is often used in such a case.
Example: On our next vacation, we plan to visit the following countries:
England, France, Italy, and Greece.
Use a colon to divide hours from minutes.
Example: I have an appointment with the doctor at 10:30 tomorrow
morning.

49. Cont’d
6. Exclamation Point (!) (Sometimes called an Exclamation Mark)
Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence to show strong
emotion.
Example: I am very upset with him!
Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence for emphasis.
Example: I have to go home right now!
Use an exclamation mark after an interjection at the start of a
sentence (an interjection is a word used to express strong feeling
or
sudden emotion).
Example: Wow! That test was harder than I expected.

50. Cont’d
7. Apostrophe (')
Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or
letters in a contraction.
Example: I don't think she will win the election.
Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show
possession.
Example: Please take good care of Brad's dog.

51. Cont’d

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
8. Quotation marks (“ ")
The two main uses of quotation marks are:
1. To set off the exact words of a speaker or writer
Example:
The biology professor said, “Ants are a lot like human
beings. They farm their own food and raise smaller
insects as livestock. And like humans, ants send
armies to war.”
2. To set off the titles of short works
Example:
The physics professor said, “For class on Friday, do the
problems at
the end of the chapter titled ‘Work and Energy.’ ”

52. Cont’d
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9. Dash (—)
A dash signals a pause longer than a comma but
not as complete as a period.
Use a dash to set off words for dramatic effect:
Example:
I was so exhausted that I fell asleep within
seconds—standing up.
He had many good qualities—sincerity, honesty,
and thoughtfulness—yet he had few friends.

53. Cont’d
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10. Parentheses ( )
Parentheses are used to set off extra or incidental
information from the rest of a sentence:
Example:
In 1913, the tax on an annual income of four thousand
dollars (a comfortable wage at that time) was one penny.
11. Hyphen –
Some of the uses of hyphen are:
To combine words into compounds: twenty-two.
To set off prefixes: anti-democracy, post-independence,
etc.
To form compound nous, adverbs, and verbs: Ice- cold
(noun); full—heartedly (adverb); dry-clean(verb)

54. B. Capitalization

Capitalization is the process of making the letter (s) of
words capital based on the rules of particular language.
1. The first word of every sentence is capitalized.
Example: We enjoyed reading the book.
2. The first-person singular pronoun I is always capitalized.
Example: My brother and I picked up the papers.
3. The first, last, and important words in a title of a book, magazine,
song, movie, or other work are capitalized.
Example: She saw Snow White when she was five years old.
4. Proper nouns are capitalized:
Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House,
General Motors Corporation.

55. Cont’d
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
Specific geographical locations: Hartford,
Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake Erie,
the Northeast, the South end.
However, we do not capitalize compass
directions or locations that aren't being used as
names: the north side of the city; we're heading
south this winter.
When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize
attributive words when they precede place-
names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario.
But, the opposite happens when the order is
reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack
mountains.

56. Cont’d
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
When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to
being an actual part of a proper noun, do not
capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get
as hot as the Sahara Desert."
Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not,
however, capitalize earth, moon, sun, except when those
names appear in a context in which other (capitalized)
celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is
further from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.

57. Cont’d
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

Names of newspapers and journals. Do not,
however, capitalize the word the, even when it is
part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford
Courant.
Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however,
capitalize the names of seasons (spring, summer, fall,
autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by
spring, we'll be back up north."
Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance.

58. Cont’d
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Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish,
African, American, Jewish, French, Native American.
Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ,
Allah, Buddha, Christianity, Christians, Judaism, Jews,
Islam, Muslims.
Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101.
(However, we would write: "I'm taking courses in
biology and earth science this summer.")
Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.