5. Subordination 1 1/3 X- Y- Z- ( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] ) S V O A Z = subordinate to Y Y = subordinate to X Y & Z = dependent clauses X = independent clause Subordination Hierarchy of clauses
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7. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/1 Classifications of subordinate clauses By structural type By functional type
8. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/2 See more in 11.2 - 11.5 By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Verbless clause
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10. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/4 By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ed participle -ing participle
11. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/5 By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ed participle -ing participle Without S: The best thing would be to tell everybody . With S: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
12. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/6 By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ed participle -ing participle Without S: Leaving the room , he tripped over the mat. With S: Her aunt having left the room , I declared my passionate love for Celia..
13. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/7 Without S: All I did was hit him on the head . With S: Rather than John do it , I’d prefer to give the job to Mary. By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ed participle -ing participle
14. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/8 Without S: Covered in snow , he looked like a snowman. With S: We left the room and went home, the job finished. By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ed participle -ing participle
15. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/9 1. Ellipsis of the verb ‘be’ - Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children . - Whether right or wrong , he always dominates the arguments. By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause Verbless clause
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17. Classifications of subordinate clauses 2 2/11 By function Nominal clause Adverbial clause Comparative clause Comment clause
18. Subordinators 3 3/1 See more in 11.6 - 11.9 Subordinating conjunctions Simple subordinators Compound subordinators Correlative subordinators
19. Subordinators 3 3/2 after, though, although, as, because, before, if, once since, that, until, when where, while, etc. Subordinating conjunctions Simple subordinators Compound subordinators Correlative subordinators
22. Subordinators 3 3/5 Other indicators of subordination Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker
23. Subordinators 3 3/6 I don’t know who knocked at the door last night. Other indicators of subordination Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker
24. Subordinators 3 3/7 Had it not been for your help, I would have died. Other indicators of subordination Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker
25. Subordinators 3 3/8 1. nominal clause e.g. I suppose (that) you’re right. 2. comment clause e.g. You’re right, I suppose. Other indicators of subordination Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker
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27. Nominal clauses 4 4/1 Nominal Clauses Finite Non-finite that clause wh-interrogative clause Yes - No interrogative clause Nominal relative clause to-infinitive nominal clause nominal –ing clause bare infinitive See more in 11.13 - 11.19
28. Nominal clauses 4 4/2 - S: That you were wrong is undeniable. - Od: I knew that I was wrong. - Cs: The problem is that he refuses to speak in court. - Appositive: The fact that he hates English makes it hard for him to study it. - Cadj: I’m sure that things will improve. Finite Nominal Clauses that clause wh-interrogative clause Yes - No interrogative clause Nominal relative clause
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32. Nominal clauses 4 4/6 - S: To become an MC has always been my dream. - Od: John wanted her to open the door. - Cs: My wish is to stay here one more week. - Ap: His ambition to be a famous writer was fulfilled. - Cadj: I’m glad to help you. Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause nominal –ing clause bare infinitive
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34. Nominal clauses 4 4/8 - ‘to’ is optional in case of ‘do’ proform. E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas. - bare infinitive is obligatory when the infinitive clause is initial E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did. Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause nominal –ing clause bare infinitive
35. Adverbial clauses 5 5/1 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference See more in 11.20 - 11.34
36. Adverbial clauses 5 5/2 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - after, before, until, since, when + finite clause - after, before, since, until, when(ever), while + V-ing - once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed - as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause
37. Adverbial clauses 5 5/3 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - Introduced by ‘where’/ ‘wherever’ E.g. When I retire , I will travel around the world . Where the fire had been , we saw nothing but rubble.
38. Adverbial clauses 5 5/4 - Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance on another. - Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that … E.g. If you’re kind to her , she will do anything for you. Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference
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40. Adverbial clauses 5 5/6 Clauses of condition or concession Alternative conditional-concessive clauses Universal conditional-concessive clauses
41. Adverbial clauses 5 5/7 Clauses of condition or concession Alternative conditional-concessive clauses E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them , we’ll celebrate tonight. Combine conditional meaning with subjunctive meaning
42. Adverbial clauses 5 5/8 Clauses of condition or concession Universal conditional-concessive clauses E.g. No matter how hard he tried , he could never summon enough courage to tell her the truth. Indicate a free choice from among any number of conditions
43. Adverbial clauses 5 5/9 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - introduced by because, since, as - I didn’t lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment . (adjunct) - They’ve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising . (disjunct of reason) See more in 5.22
44. Adverbial clauses 5 5/10 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise (in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in the main clause) - introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that E.g. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy our game . = The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game .
45. Adverbial clauses 5 5/11 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - are adjuncts - introduced by (in order) (for N) to, so as to, so that E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up . He tried to improve his English so that he could study abroad . - has ‘putative’ meaning (modal auxiliaries are used)
46. Adverbial clauses 5 5/12 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference - are more factual than putative may contain an ordinary verb form without a modal auxiliary - introduced by so that/so (informal) E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful .
47. Adverbial clauses 5 5/13 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference Clauses of manner – (exactly) as, (just) as (Just) as a moth is attracted by a light , (so) he was fascinated by her.
48. Adverbial clauses 5 5/14 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference Clauses of comparison – as if, as though He looks as if he is going to faint . He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)
49. Adverbial clauses 5 5/15 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference Clauses of proportion express a ‘proportionality’ or equivalence of tendency between two circumstances E.g. As he grew older , (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased. The more he went deeper into the forest , the more scared he felt.
50. Adverbial clauses 5 5/16 Time Place Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/ sooner than E.g. Rather than go there by air , I’d take the train. Rather than sitting here complaining , we should act. Rather than a new shirt , he bought a dictionary.
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52. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/1 Comp-element S: More people eat at KFC than any other fastfood restaurant. Cs: I’m healthier than most people of my age. Od: She eats much more than me. Oi: Santa has brought more children joy than anybody else. A: She works harder than my brother. See more in 11.37 - 11.44
53. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/2 Ellipsis in Comparative Clause 1. Optional ellipsis James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan. 2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object) - James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed. + James know more about the theatre than Susan knows. See more in 11.39
54. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/3 Ambiguity He loves the dog more than his wife. through ellipsis with ‘too’ & ‘enough’ He’s too ill to move.
55. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/4 Comment Clauses Features Forms See more in 11.45 - 11.46
56. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/5 Comment Clauses Features Forms - can be either disjuncts or conjuncts - may occur initially, finally, or medially - have a separate tone unit E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know , have been our neighbor for twenty years.
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58. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/7 (2) Like an adverbial clause (with as ) I’m a perfectionist, as you may know . Comment Clauses Features Forms
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60. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/9 (4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct To be honest with you , I didn’t understand a thing he said. Comment Clauses Features Forms
61. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/10 (5) –ing clause as style disjunct I’m concerned, speaking as a linguist , about the language of the young people today. Comment Clauses Features Forms
62. Comparative & comment clauses 6 6/11 (6) –ed clause as style disjunct Stated bluntly , he had no chance of winning. Comment Clauses Features Forms
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