1. Programming languages enable humans to communicate with computers by using words, symbols, and codes to direct a computer to perform tasks and control mechanical devices. 2. Early programming languages progressed from machine language and assembly language as first and second generation languages, to higher-level languages like FORTRAN, BASIC, and COBOL as third generation languages. Fourth and fifth generation languages provided more specialized and visual interfaces. 3. Key aspects of programming include structured and object-oriented design, variables and constants, operators, flow control, translation methods like compilers and interpreters, and the development process of problem analysis, design, coding, testing and documentation. Understanding different programming elements and techniques is essential for writing effective programs.

2. Definition of programming language.
 A programming language is a set of
words, symbols and codes that
enables humans to communicate with
computers. It is a language used for
writing computer programs, that
direct a computer to perform
computation and to organise the flow
of control between mechanical
devices.

3. The generations of low-level programming languages with examples.
FIRST GENERATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The first generation of programming language, or 1GL, is machine language. Machine
language is a set of instructions and data that a computer's central processing unit can
execute directly. Machine language statements are written in binary code, and each
statement corresponds to one machine action.
SECOND GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The second generation programming language, or 2GL, is assembly language. Assembly
language is the human-readable notation for the machine language used to control specific
computer operations. An assembly language programmer writes instructions using symbolic
instruction codes that are meaningful abbreviations or mnemonics. An assembler is a
program that translates assembly language into machine language. Since assembly language
consist of human-readable abbreviations, the assembler must first convert assembly language
into machine-readable language before the computer can readily understand its instructions.
The generations of high-level programming languages with examples.
THIRD GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The third generation of programming language, 3GL, or procedural language uses a series of
English-like words, that are closer to human language, to write instructions. High-level
programming languages make complex programming simpler and easier to read, write and
maintain. Programs written in a high-level programming language must be translated into
machine language by a compiler or interpreter. PASCAL, FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, C
and C++ are examples of third generation programming languages.

4. FOURTH GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
- The fourth generation programming language or non-procedural
language, often abbreviated as 4GL, enables users to access data in a database.
A very high-level programming language is often referred to as goal-oriented
programming language because it is usually limited to a very specific application
and it might use syntax that is never used in other programming languages.
SQL, NOMAD and FOCUS are examples of fourth generation programming
languages.
FIFTH GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
- The fifth generation programming language or visual programming language, is
also known as natural language. Provides a visual or graphical interface, called a
visual programming environment, for creating source codes. Fifth generation
programming allows people to interact with computers without needing any
specialised knowledge. People can talk to computers and the voice recognition
systems can convert spoken sounds into written words, but these systems do not
understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Prolog and
Mercury are the best known fifth-generation languages.

5. STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING EDUCATION
•Structured programming often uses a top-down design model where developers map out
the overall program structure into separate subsections from top to bottom.
•In the top-down design model, programs are drawn as rectangles. A top-down design means
that the whole program is broken down into smaller sections that are known as modules. A
program may have a module or several modules.
•Structured programming is beneficial for organising and coding computer programs which
employ a hierarchy of modules. This means that control is passed downwards only through
the hierarchy.
•Examples of structured programming languages include Ada, Pascal and Fortran.
DEFINE OBJECT-ORIENTED APPROACH IN PROGRAMMING.
 The object-oriented approach refers to a special type of programming approach that
combines data with functions to create objects. In an object-oriented program, the
object have relationships with one another. One of the earliest OOP languages is
Smalltalk. Java, Visual Basic and C++ are examples of popular OOP languages.

6. Differentiate between structured approach and object-
oriented approach in programming
Structured approach differences Object-oriented
approach
Structured programming Uses Object oriented approach
approached uses a top uses objects.
down design model.
The programmer divides Emphasize The programmer
programming problem packages the data and the
into module like function into a single
function. unit, an object.
Medium programming Suitable for Large programming
project. project.

7. Describe the translation method of
programming using
assembler, interpreter and compiler.
COMPILER
INTERPRETER
The source code (in text
Interpreter is used to
format) will be converted
interpret and execute
into machine code which is a
ASSEMBLER program directly from its
file consisting of binary
source without compiling it
An assembler is a computer machine code that can be
first. The source code of an
program for translating executed on a computer. If
interpreted language is
assembly language — the compiler encounters any
interpreted and executed in
essentially, a mnemonic errors, it records them in
real time when the user
representation of machine the program-listing file.
execute it.
language — into machine When a user wants to run the
language. The interpreter will read
program, the object
each codes converts it to
program is loaded into the
machine code and executes it
memory of the computer and
line by line until the end of
the program instructions
the program. Examples of
begin executing. A compiled
interpreter-based language
code generally runs faster
are BASIC, Logo and
than programs based on
Smalltalk.
interpreted language.

8. Interpreter Difference Compiler
Translate programming Method Translate entire
statement line by line and programming statement
execute it immediately. and execute it later.
No object code is saved. Object code Store machine language
as object code on the disk.
Interpreted code run Running time Compiled code run faster.
slower.

9. Basic elements in programming
 Constant declaration Constants Differences Variables
const costantName = value
Constants characteristic Variables can
e.g : const PI = 3.142 retain their s change their
const gravity = 9.8 value during value during
const discount = 0.2 the program program
execution. execution.
 Variable declaration
Dim variableName as datatype
e.g : dim studentName as string
dim noOfStudent as integer
dim schoolFee as double
dim DateOfBirth as date

10. Integer
Double
Integer data type contains any
Any number value that may and
whole number value that does
could contain a fractional part.
not have any fractional part.
Differentiate
between the data
types
Boolean
String
Boolean type consists either a
Any value that contains a
True or False value. Programmers
sequence of characters.
usually use it to store status.

11. Differentiate between mathematical and logical
operators
 Operator is a symbol or notation that tells a computer to perform
certain actions or operations.
Mathematical Meaning
Logical Meaning
operator
operator
+ Plus
And And operator
- Minus
Or Or operator
* Multiply
/ divide Not Not operator
Comparison operator Meaning
> Greater than
< Less than
= Equal
<> Not
<= Less than or equal

12.  Five main elements in a flow chart
Symbols Names Explanation
Terminal begin or Use to shows the beginning or end of
end a program.
Flowlines Use to connect symbols and indicate
the sequences of operation.
Input or output Use to shows either an input
(print / display) operations(e.g. an input from the
user) or an output operation(e.g.
print or display messages)
Process Use to shows a process to be carried
(formula) out (e.g. calculator
Decision Use to shows a decision(or choice) to
(if-then-else) be made. The program should
continue along one of two routes(e.g.
if…then…else)

13.  Draw a flowchart to show how a program calculates
the area of a circle.
Begin
Get radius
Area of ciccle
= ½ * PI *
radius^2
Print area
of circle
End

14. Five main phases in program development:
Phase Explanation
Problem analysis  Identify input, processing, output and data component.
 Meet with system analyst and users.
 Ask expert.
Program design  Divide all program activities into program modules.
 Create solution algorithm for each program modules(logic
structure).
 Design/ draw user interface.
Coding  Coding a program involves translating the solution algorithm
(writing the program is into programming language usually on paper.
called coding)  Typing code into the computer using programming language.
Testing and debugging  Manually testing with sample data.
 The program is run through computer, using a translator
program. Before the program will run, it must be free of syntax
error.
Documentation  Documentation enables new programmer to understand the
flow of program
 Is used for future reference in case the program needs change.
 Explain the purpose of the code statement.

15. Types of error
1. Syntax error
caused by wrong spelling in commands(words) and declaration. Other
syntax error include case sensitive and wrong words command.
the easiest error to find because they are highlighted by the compiler. Error
message are given.
example :
Source code Syntax error : missing curly
braces }
If (mark > 50) If (mark > 50)
{ {
Else }
{ Else
{
}
}

16. latest programming languages:
Fifth generation language
Fifth generation programming language (5GL) is an advance
programming language which concentrates on solving
problems using constraints given to the program.
In fifth generation language, the programmer just need to
define the problem to be solve and the program will
automatically code the program based on the problem
definition.Fifth generation languages are designed to make the
computer solve the problem for you. These languages are
mostly used in artificial intelligence research. Examples of
fifth generation languages include Prolog and Mercury.

17. openGL (graphic library)
OpenGL is a standard specification to describe the standard Application
Programming Interface (API) for 3D/2D computer graphic applications. It’s
specification describes a set of functions and the exact behaviours that the
3D/2D application must perform.
OpenGL was developed by Silicon Graphics. OpenGL is widely used in
virtual reality, scientific visualisation, flight simulation and video game
development
Natural language
Natural Language programming aims to use natural language
such as English to write a program.
Instead of using a specific programming language
syntax, natural language programming will use normal
English as the input to program software. Such a technique
would mean less technical programming knowledge is
required to write a program.The programmer needs to define
the program using normal language.

18. End chapter 5…….