The document discusses various topics related to programming languages including: - The definitions and generations of programming languages from machine language to fifth generation languages like Prolog. - The differences between structured and object-oriented programming approaches. Structured programming uses top-down design while object-oriented programming packages data and functions into objects. - The translation methods of assemblers, interpreters, and compilers in converting source code to machine-readable code. Assemblers translate assembly language, interpreters interpret code line-by-line, and compilers convert entire programs. - Common programming elements like variables, data types, operators, and the phases of program development from problem analysis to documentation.

2. Definition of programming language.
A programming language is a set of
words, symbols and codes that
enables humans to communicate with
computers. It is a language used for
writing computer programs, that
direct a computer to perform
computation and to organise the flow
of control between mechanical
devices.

3. The generations of low-level programming languages with examples.
FIRST GENERATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The first generation of programming language, or 1GL, is machine language. Machine
language is a set of instructions and data that a computer's central processing unit can
execute directly. Machine language statements are written in binary code, and each
statement corresponds to one machine action.
SECOND GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The second generation programming language, or 2GL, is assembly language. Assembly
language is the human-readable notation for the machine language used to control specific
computer operations. An assembly language programmer writes instructions using symbolic
instruction codes that are meaningful abbreviations or mnemonics. An assembler is a
program that translates assembly language into machine language. Since assembly language
consist of human-readable abbreviations, the assembler must first convert assembly language
into machine-readable language before the computer can readily understand its instructions.
The generations of high-level programming languages with examples.
THIRD GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 The third generation of programming language, 3GL, or procedural language uses a series of
English-like words, that are closer to human language, to write instructions. High-level
programming languages make complex programming simpler and easier to read, write and
maintain. Programs written in a high-level programming language must be translated into
machine language by a compiler or interpreter. PASCAL, FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, C
and C++ are examples of third generation programming languages.

4. FOURTH GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
- The fourth generation programming language or non-procedural language,
often abbreviated as 4GL, enables users to access data in a database. A very
high-level programming language is often referred to as goal-oriented
programming language because it is usually limited to a very specific application
and it might use syntax that is never used in other programming languages. SQL,
NOMAD and FOCUS are examples of fourth generation programming
languages.
FIFTH GENERATION PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
- The fifth generation programming language or visual programming language, is
also known as natural language. Provides a visual or graphical interface, called a
visual programming environment, for creating source codes. Fifth generation
programming allows people to interact with computers without needing any
specialised knowledge. People can talk to computers and the voice recognition
systems can convert spoken sounds into written words, but these systems do not
understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Prolog and
Mercury are the best known fifth-generation languages.

5. STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING EDUCATION
•Structured programming often uses a top-down design model where developers map out
the overall program structure into separate subsections from top to bottom.
•In the top-down design model, programs are drawn as rectangles. A top-down design means
that the whole program is broken down into smaller sections that are known as modules. A
program may have a module or several modules.
•Structured programming is beneficial for organising and coding computer programs which
employ a hierarchy of modules. This means that control is passed downwards only through
the hierarchy.
•Examples of structured programming languages include Ada, Pascal and Fortran.
DEFINE OBJECT-ORIENTED APPROACH IN PROGRAMMING.
 The object-oriented approach refers to a special type of programming approach that
combines data with functions to create objects. In an object-oriented program, the
object have relationships with one another. One of the earliest OOP languages is
Smalltalk. Java, Visual Basic and C++ are examples of popular OOP languages.

6. Differentiate between structured approach and object-
oriented approach in programming
Structured approach differences Object-oriented
approach
Structured programming
approached uses a top
down design model.
Uses Object oriented approach
uses objects.
The programmer divides
programming problem
into module like
function.
Emphasize The programmer
packages the data and the
function into a single
unit, an object.
Medium programming
project.
Suitable for Large programming
project.

7. Describe the translation method of
programming using assembler,
interpreter and compiler.
ASSEMBLER
An assembler is a computer
program for translating
assembly language —
essentially, a mnemonic
representation of machine
language — into machine
language.
INTERPRETER
Interpreter is used to
interpret and execute
program directly from its
source without compiling it
first. The source code of an
interpreted language is
interpreted and executed in
real time when the user
execute it.
The interpreter will read
each codes converts it to
machine code and executes it
line by line until the end of
the program. Examples of
interpreter-based language
are BASIC, Logo and
Smalltalk.
COMPILER
The source code (in text
format) will be converted
into machine code which is a
file consisting of binary
machine code that can be
executed on a computer. If
the compiler encounters any
errors, it records them in
the program-listing file.
When a user wants to run the
program, the object
program is loaded into the
memory of the computer and
the program instructions
begin executing. A compiled
code generally runs faster
than programs based on
interpreted language.

8. Interpreter Difference Compiler
Translate programming
statement line by line and
execute it immediately.
Method Translate entire
programming statement
and execute it later.
No object code is saved. Object code Store machine language
as object code on the disk.
Interpreted code run
slower.
Running time Compiled code run faster.

9. Basic elements in programming
 Constant declaration
const costantName = value
e.g : const PI = 3.142
const gravity = 9.8
const discount = 0.2
 Variable declaration
Dim variableName as datatype
e.g : dim studentName as string
dim noOfStudent as integer
dim schoolFee as double
dim DateOfBirth as date
Constants Differences Variables
Constants
retain their
value during
the program
execution.
characteristic
s
Variables can
change their
value during
program
execution.

10. Integer
Integer data type contains any
whole number value that does
not have any fractional part.
Double
Any number value that may and
could contain a fractional part.
String
Any value that contains a
sequence of characters.
Boolean
Boolean type consists either a
True or False value. Programmers
usually use it to store status.
Differentiate
between the data
types

11. Differentiate between mathematical and logical
operators
 Operator is a symbol or notation that tells a computer to perform
certain actions or operations.
Mathematical
operator
Meaning
+ Plus
- Minus
* Multiply
/ divide
Logical
operator
Meaning
And And operator
Or Or operator
Not Not operator
Comparison operator Meaning
> Greater than
< Less than
= Equal
<> Not
<= Less than or equal

12.  Five main elements in a flow chart
Symbols Names Explanation
Terminal begin or
end
Use to shows the beginning or end of
a program.
Flowlines Use to connect symbols and indicate
the sequences of operation.
Input or output
(print / display)
Use to shows either an input
operations(e.g. an input from the
user) or an output operation(e.g.
print or display messages)
Process
(formula)
Use to shows a process to be carried
out (e.g. calculator
Decision
(if-then-else)
Use to shows a decision(or choice) to
be made. The program should
continue along one of two routes(e.g.
if…then…else)

13.  Draw a flowchart to show how a program calculates
the area of a circle.
Print area
of circle
Area of ciccle
= ½ * PI *
radius^2
Get radius
Begin
End

14. Five main phases in program development:
Phase Explanation
Problem analysis  Identify input, processing, output and data component.
 Meet with system analyst and users.
 Ask expert.
Program design  Divide all program activities into program modules.
 Create solution algorithm for each program modules(logic
structure).
 Design/ draw user interface.
Coding
(writing the program is
called coding)
 Coding a program involves translating the solution algorithm
into programming language usually on paper.
 Typing code into the computer using programming language.
Testing and debugging  Manually testing with sample data.
 The program is run through computer, using a translator
program. Before the program will run, it must be free of syntax
error.
Documentation  Documentation enables new programmer to understand the
flow of program
 Is used for future reference in case the program needs change.
 Explain the purpose of the code statement.

15. Types of error
1. Syntax error
caused by wrong spelling in commands(words) and declaration. Other
syntax error include case sensitive and wrong words command.
the easiest error to find because they are highlighted by the compiler. Error
message are given.
example :
Source code Syntax error : missing curly
braces }
If (mark > 50)
{
Else
{
}
If (mark > 50)
{
}
Else
{
}

16. Fifth generation language
Fifth generation programming language (5GL) is an advance
programming language which concentrates on solving
problems using constraints given to the program.
In fifth generation language, the programmer just need to
define the problem to be solve and the program will
automatically code the program based on the problem
definition.Fifth generation languages are designed to make the
computer solve the problem for you. These languages are
mostly used in artificial intelligence research. Examples of
fifth generation languages include Prolog and Mercury.
latest programming languages:

17. openGL (graphic library)
OpenGL is a standard specification to describe the standard Application
Programming Interface (API) for 3D/2D computer graphic applications. It’s
specification describes a set of functions and the exact behaviours that the
3D/2D application must perform.
OpenGL was developed by Silicon Graphics. OpenGL is widely used in
virtual reality, scientific visualisation, flight simulation and video game
development
Natural language
Natural Language programming aims to use natural language
such as English to write a program.
Instead of using a specific programming language syntax,
natural language programming will use normal English as the
input to program software. Such a technique would mean less
technical programming knowledge is required to write a
program.The programmer needs to define the program using
normal language.

18. End chapter 5…….