Chapter 5
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Chinese uses exclamation particles to record aspects of speech beyond strict meaning, with some characters exclusively representing exclamations and others sharing characters with other words. Exclamation particles, like other Chinese words, are single syllable and similarly structured, with common ones including 哈哈,哇,啊,嘿,哦,嘛,呗.
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Logical conectors
This document discusses logical connectors, also known as connectives, discourse markers, or linking words. Logical connectors are words that contribute to the cohesion of a text by joining parts of sentences, phrases in paragraphs, or paragraphs in a text. There are different types of logical connectors, including temporal sequencers, spatial markers, and logical connectors. Logical connectors can be divided into four main categories: additive, contrastive, cause and effect, and sequence. Examples of connectors from each category are provided.
English vocabulary and basic grammar teaching by morphology
This document discusses morphology and morphemes in the English language. It defines morphology as the study of forms and morphemes as the smallest units of meaning in a language. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone and include prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Morphemes are further classified as lexical, carrying the content of language, or functional, including conjunctions and prepositions. Bound morphemes are divided into derivational, which change word categories, and inflectional, which indicate grammatical functions like number, tense, and comparison.
Morpheme
This document defines and provides examples of different types of morphemes:
1. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language that cannot be further divided. Morphemes can be words or parts of words.
2. Morphemes are classified as free or bound. Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be combined with other morphemes.
3. There are two types of free morphemes - lexical morphemes which provide the main meaning, and functional morphemes which serve a grammatical purpose. Bound morphemes include affixes like prefixes and suffixes.
Word classes
The document discusses word classes in English grammar. There are two main types of word classes: open word classes and closed word classes. Open word classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, which readily accept new members. Closed word classes, such as pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions, have fixed membership and do not usually accept new words. Word classes can also be categorized as lexical/content words, which are open classes, and functional/grammatical words, which are closed classes.
Lesson 2
The definite article in Hebrew is expressed by the letter ה and is attached to the first letter of the following word. It is pronounced הַ in all cases except before חַ, חַ, and unaccented עַ, where it is pronounced הַ. The rules for vowels in the word מַה for "what" follow the same rules as the definite article.
Morphology and Phonology
This document discusses morphology and phonology and their importance in language instruction. It defines morphology as the study of how morphemes combine to form words. Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language. Teaching morphemes can help students learn more vocabulary. Phonology is defined as the study of speech sound patterns. Understanding phonology allows students to distinguish sounds in their native language from foreign sounds and to learn pronunciation rules. The document argues that learning morphology and phonology can improve students' written and verbal communication skills.
Discovering the meaning to words
There are several ways to discover the meaning of words, including using context clues within a sentence or passage, or utilizing references like dictionaries and thesauruses. Dictionaries are helpful tools that provide pronunciation, part of speech, meanings, origins, and related words. When references aren't available, context clues around an unknown word can reveal its definition, such as surrounding sentences that provide hints about a word's meaning. It is important to read full passages, not just individual sentences, for context when determining definitions.
Phoneme
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in a language to convey meaning. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. English has 24 consonant and 20 vowel phonemes. Phonemes are language specific and each language selects a set of sounds to form patterns. Allophones are different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme that do not change meaning, such as the aspirated and unaspirated versions of /p/, /t/, and /k/ in English. A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in only one phoneme.
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English vocabulary and basic grammar teaching by morphology
This document discusses morphology and morphemes in the English language. It defines morphology as the study of forms and morphemes as the smallest units of meaning in a language. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone and include prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Morphemes are further classified as lexical, carrying the content of language, or functional, including conjunctions and prepositions. Bound morphemes are divided into derivational, which change word categories, and inflectional, which indicate grammatical functions like number, tense, and comparison.
Morpheme
This document defines and provides examples of different types of morphemes:
1. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language that cannot be further divided. Morphemes can be words or parts of words.
2. Morphemes are classified as free or bound. Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be combined with other morphemes.
3. There are two types of free morphemes - lexical morphemes which provide the main meaning, and functional morphemes which serve a grammatical purpose. Bound morphemes include affixes like prefixes and suffixes.
Word classes
The document discusses word classes in English grammar. There are two main types of word classes: open word classes and closed word classes. Open word classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, which readily accept new members. Closed word classes, such as pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions, have fixed membership and do not usually accept new words. Word classes can also be categorized as lexical/content words, which are open classes, and functional/grammatical words, which are closed classes.
Lesson 2
The definite article in Hebrew is expressed by the letter ה and is attached to the first letter of the following word. It is pronounced הַ in all cases except before חַ, חַ, and unaccented עַ, where it is pronounced הַ. The rules for vowels in the word מַה for "what" follow the same rules as the definite article.
Morphology and Phonology
This document discusses morphology and phonology and their importance in language instruction. It defines morphology as the study of how morphemes combine to form words. Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language. Teaching morphemes can help students learn more vocabulary. Phonology is defined as the study of speech sound patterns. Understanding phonology allows students to distinguish sounds in their native language from foreign sounds and to learn pronunciation rules. The document argues that learning morphology and phonology can improve students' written and verbal communication skills.
Discovering the meaning to words
There are several ways to discover the meaning of words, including using context clues within a sentence or passage, or utilizing references like dictionaries and thesauruses. Dictionaries are helpful tools that provide pronunciation, part of speech, meanings, origins, and related words. When references aren't available, context clues around an unknown word can reveal its definition, such as surrounding sentences that provide hints about a word's meaning. It is important to read full passages, not just individual sentences, for context when determining definitions.
Phoneme
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in a language to convey meaning. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. English has 24 consonant and 20 vowel phonemes. Phonemes are language specific and each language selects a set of sounds to form patterns. Allophones are different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme that do not change meaning, such as the aspirated and unaspirated versions of /p/, /t/, and /k/ in English. A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in only one phoneme.
Definition of Semantic and The Study of Meaning
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted through language use. Semantics is interested in how meaning works in individual words and sentences, relationships between words, ambiguity, and different interpretations of meaning. Precisely defining meaning is important, and semantics defines it as both the thing referred to in the world and the mental concepts evoked. There are different types of meaning studied in semantics, including linguistic meaning involving sense and reference, social meaning involving social characteristics inferred from language, and affective meaning involving emotional connotations of words.
what is morphology?
Morphology is the study of word structures and forms. It analyzes words into units called morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand alone as words, like nouns and verbs. Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes, like prefixes and suffixes.
English Grammar
This document provides an overview of the key components of English grammar. It defines English grammar as the study of word forms and structures, phrase and sentence arrangements, sounds, and meanings. It then classifies English grammar into four main parts: orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. Each part deals with a different linguistic element such as letter combinations, word classes and changes, sentence structure, and speech/reading. The document also provides brief definitions and examples of common grammatical terms like nouns, adjectives, verbs and verb tenses, determiners, punctuation, relative clauses, and differences between English and Spanish grammar.
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A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.) A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a verb. And this is educational purpose only
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- Syntax refers to the rules that govern sentence structure in individual languages.
- There are four types of sentences defined by their use of clauses: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
- Examples are given of each sentence type including their grammatical structure and syntax.
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This document defines terminology related to analyzing texts. It provides definitions for over 100 terms covering content, context, attitudes, purpose, tone, themes, form, verse type, poetic structures like stanzas, rhyme schemes, meters, and literary devices. It also defines linguistic terms involving syntax, morphology, semantics, phonology, pragmatics, and discourse analysis.
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This document provides information about what constitutes a reference grammar, including the necessary training, typical structure, and intended purpose. A reference grammar is a prose description of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. It is intended as a reference tool for looking up grammatical details. Key parts include an introduction on the language and people, sections organized by increasing structural complexity (e.g. phonology to discourse), an index to easily find details, bibliography, and abbreviations list. The goal is to make grammatical information highly accessible through organization and indexing.
The dimension of meaning
The document discusses different aspects of meaning in language. It defines reference and denotation, and explains the triangle of meaning model involving words, concepts, and objects. It then discusses the different types of connotation that words can have, such as positive, negative, and neutral. The document also covers sense relations between words, including synonyms, antonyms, polysemy, and hyponyms. Finally, it distinguishes between lexical meaning involving word formation and grammatical meaning related to grammar and parts of speech.
A level english language (spec b )
This document provides information on different ways to group texts for an A-Level English Language exam, including by lexis, grammar, phonology, and pragmatics. It discusses various linguistic concepts like parts of speech, word classes, verbs, adjectives, phonology, and Labov's narrative structure. Classification tables are provided for pronouns, verbs, consonant groups, and adjectives.
Types of corpus linguistics Parallel ,aligned...
Parallel corpora consist of original texts and their translations between two or more languages. They are aligned so that corresponding segments, such as sentences or paragraphs, can be matched between languages. This allows users to search for words or phrases in one language and see the translations in the other language. Parallel corpora can be used for contrastive linguistics to analyze similarities and differences between languages, as well as for translation studies and lexicology. Examples of parallel corpora include the English-German Translation Corpus and the English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus. Comparable corpora contain similar text types and genres in different languages or language varieties to allow for comparison. Aligned corpora explicitly link translated elements, such as sentences, phrases, or words, between
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This document defines and compares different types of grammar. It explains that descriptive grammar objectively describes a language's rules, while prescriptive grammar prescribes rules about how a language should be used. Universal grammar refers to innate linguistic properties that are shared across all human languages. Traditional grammar provides a framework for describing a language's structure and determining correct usage. The document also discusses how learning grammar is important for effective communication and language learning, as grammar provides the rules for forming sentences.
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The Dimension of Meaning - Semantics
Reference and Denotation
Connotation
Sense Relations
Lexical and Grammatical Meanings
Reference
Reference is the relation between a language expression such as this door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what a speaker many imagine.
Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully.
Example :
My son is in the beech tree.
Referent:person Referent:things
Note :
Referent of a part of language : things or people exist in the world even something or someone that not exist but we believe they are available.
Kind of Reference
The English Expression (Part of Language)
Thing/Person (Part of world)
Triangle of meaning by Ogden and Richards
Denotation
Denotation is the straight forward or common – sense meaning of a sign. Literally what is actually shown in an image .
Example :
A red rose is a flower – that is its straight forward meaning or denotation.
An apple is a fruit we eat.
Connotation
Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word.
Kinds of connotation :
Flavor or positive connotation : words that make people feel good.
Unfavorable or negative connotation : words that provoke a negative emotional response.
Neutral connotation : not good or bad ; indifferent ; used when the author doesn’t want to show strong emotions either way.
Sense Relations
Sense Relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates
Kinds of Sense Relations
SYNONYM
Synonym is a word that means exactly the same as or very nearly the same as, another world in the same language
ANTONYM
Antonym is a word which has opposite meaning.
POLYSEMY
Polysemi is a word that has many meaning, but it includes a central groove
HYPONYM
Hyponym is a word whose meaning is summarized in a broader sense
LEXICAL & GRAMMATICAL MEANING
Lexical (derivational morphology) studies word formation which produces new words. It changes part of speech and meaning.
Grammatical (inflection morphology) studies word formation related to grammar. It does not change part of speech and meaning, but give signal grammatical information
Parallelism
The document discusses parallelism in grammar. It defines parallelism as two or more phrases or clauses in a sentence having the same grammatical structure. It provides examples of nonparallel and parallel constructions and how to correct nonparallel structures by making coordinated elements grammatically alike, such as changing an adjective to an adverb or adding a preposition. The document contains multiple sections with mixed constructions and their parallel corrections.
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Objectives:How do we study SoE, The three-part model of English, Outline structure of English, Basic constituent analysis of a sentence, morphology, Definition of SoE
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This document provides Chinese words that express groups and their English definitions:
1. 一道 (yí dào) means together or one, depending on the context, and is used to refer to steps, long thin objects, commands, questions, dishes, or walls surrounding something.
2. 一批 (yì pī) refers to a group, stock, batch, collection, or pile.
3. 一系列的 (yí xì liè de) means a sequence or series, such as a series of concerts arranged by a band.
Chapter 7
The document provides a list of common Chinese idioms and structures used to connect and compare ideas:
1) It lists several common idiomatic structures used in Chinese to connect ideas, such as "A ba... bù A ba..." meaning doing something or not doing it both have pros and cons, and "chú le...jiù shì..." meaning one thing or another with no other options.
2) It also lists structures used to indicate alternating occurrences like "yí huì’er....yí huì’er...." and structures used to show consequences like "fǒu zé" meaning "otherwise".
3) Additionally, it provides connectors for comparisons ("jì........y
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Definition of Semantic and The Study of Meaning
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted through language use. Semantics is interested in how meaning works in individual words and sentences, relationships between words, ambiguity, and different interpretations of meaning. Precisely defining meaning is important, and semantics defines it as both the thing referred to in the world and the mental concepts evoked. There are different types of meaning studied in semantics, including linguistic meaning involving sense and reference, social meaning involving social characteristics inferred from language, and affective meaning involving emotional connotations of words.
what is morphology?
Morphology is the study of word structures and forms. It analyzes words into units called morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand alone as words, like nouns and verbs. Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes, like prefixes and suffixes.
English Grammar
This document provides an overview of the key components of English grammar. It defines English grammar as the study of word forms and structures, phrase and sentence arrangements, sounds, and meanings. It then classifies English grammar into four main parts: orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. Each part deals with a different linguistic element such as letter combinations, word classes and changes, sentence structure, and speech/reading. The document also provides brief definitions and examples of common grammatical terms like nouns, adjectives, verbs and verb tenses, determiners, punctuation, relative clauses, and differences between English and Spanish grammar.
Clause
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.) A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a verb. And this is educational purpose only
Syntax
The document provides an introduction to syntax including:
- Defining syntax as the study of principles and processes of sentence construction in languages.
- Syntax refers to the rules that govern sentence structure in individual languages.
- There are four types of sentences defined by their use of clauses: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
- Examples are given of each sentence type including their grammatical structure and syntax.
The terminology table
This document defines terminology related to analyzing texts. It provides definitions for over 100 terms covering content, context, attitudes, purpose, tone, themes, form, verse type, poetic structures like stanzas, rhyme schemes, meters, and literary devices. It also defines linguistic terms involving syntax, morphology, semantics, phonology, pragmatics, and discourse analysis.
alexis john benedicto
This document discusses principles of translation from various experts and scholars. It begins by outlining key characteristics a translator should possess, including knowledge of both languages, the subject matter, and both cultures. It then provides definitions of translation from different sources that emphasize conveying the same meaning or message in another language. The document also notes some conflicting principles of translation, such as whether a translation should strive for literal word-for-word accuracy or convey ideas more freely. Finally, it outlines several specific principles for translating from English to Filipino, such as considering the type of Filipino used and balancing direct translations with idioms.
Ppt linguistics
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and understood based on linguistic forms like words, phrases, and sentences. There are different types of meaning including lexical, grammatical, denotative, and connotative. Meaning can shift over time through processes like generalization, specialization, amelioration, and pejoration. Semantics also studies meaning relations between linguistic elements like synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, and homonyms. It plays an important role in language processing by enforcing semantic rules during analysis to construct a syntax tree for code generation.
Phrase
This document defines and provides examples of different types of phrases in English syntax, including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, and prepositional phrases. It explains that a phrase contains a head word and dependent words, and identifies the head word to name the phrase category. The document also discusses phrase structure trees and constituency vs. dependency trees for representing sentence structure.
10 facts you're not aware about kanji
The Japanese language uses three writing systems: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Kanji originated from Chinese characters and are now used alongside hiragana in modern Japanese. A typical Japanese sentence contains hiragana, kanji, and sometimes katakana. Kanji can have multiple pronunciations depending on context. Hiragana is used to write inflections after kanji in verbs and adjectives. Furigana provides pronunciation guidance for rare or complex kanji.
Reference grammar report
This document provides information about what constitutes a reference grammar, including the necessary training, typical structure, and intended purpose. A reference grammar is a prose description of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. It is intended as a reference tool for looking up grammatical details. Key parts include an introduction on the language and people, sections organized by increasing structural complexity (e.g. phonology to discourse), an index to easily find details, bibliography, and abbreviations list. The goal is to make grammatical information highly accessible through organization and indexing.
The dimension of meaning
The document discusses different aspects of meaning in language. It defines reference and denotation, and explains the triangle of meaning model involving words, concepts, and objects. It then discusses the different types of connotation that words can have, such as positive, negative, and neutral. The document also covers sense relations between words, including synonyms, antonyms, polysemy, and hyponyms. Finally, it distinguishes between lexical meaning involving word formation and grammatical meaning related to grammar and parts of speech.
A level english language (spec b )
This document provides information on different ways to group texts for an A-Level English Language exam, including by lexis, grammar, phonology, and pragmatics. It discusses various linguistic concepts like parts of speech, word classes, verbs, adjectives, phonology, and Labov's narrative structure. Classification tables are provided for pronouns, verbs, consonant groups, and adjectives.
Types of corpus linguistics Parallel ,aligned...
Parallel corpora consist of original texts and their translations between two or more languages. They are aligned so that corresponding segments, such as sentences or paragraphs, can be matched between languages. This allows users to search for words or phrases in one language and see the translations in the other language. Parallel corpora can be used for contrastive linguistics to analyze similarities and differences between languages, as well as for translation studies and lexicology. Examples of parallel corpora include the English-German Translation Corpus and the English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus. Comparable corpora contain similar text types and genres in different languages or language varieties to allow for comparison. Aligned corpora explicitly link translated elements, such as sentences, phrases, or words, between
What is grammar
This document defines and compares different types of grammar. It explains that descriptive grammar objectively describes a language's rules, while prescriptive grammar prescribes rules about how a language should be used. Universal grammar refers to innate linguistic properties that are shared across all human languages. Traditional grammar provides a framework for describing a language's structure and determining correct usage. The document also discusses how learning grammar is important for effective communication and language learning, as grammar provides the rules for forming sentences.
Teaching Intonation Pattern
The document discusses the importance of teaching intonation patterns at the secondary level. It defines intonation as the pattern of changing pitch in speech and identifies its main functions as conveying grammatical information and attitude. The document outlines the main types of intonation patterns - falling and rising intonation - and their uses in statements, questions, exclamations and imperatives. It concludes by providing suggestions for effectively teaching intonation, such as ensuring students understand stress patterns and modeling correct intonation.
The Dimension of Meaning - Semantics
Reference and Denotation
Connotation
Sense Relations
Lexical and Grammatical Meanings
Reference
Reference is the relation between a language expression such as this door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what a speaker many imagine.
Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully.
Example :
My son is in the beech tree.
Referent:person Referent:things
Note :
Referent of a part of language : things or people exist in the world even something or someone that not exist but we believe they are available.
Kind of Reference
The English Expression (Part of Language)
Thing/Person (Part of world)
Triangle of meaning by Ogden and Richards
Denotation
Denotation is the straight forward or common – sense meaning of a sign. Literally what is actually shown in an image .
Example :
A red rose is a flower – that is its straight forward meaning or denotation.
An apple is a fruit we eat.
Connotation
Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word.
Kinds of connotation :
Flavor or positive connotation : words that make people feel good.
Unfavorable or negative connotation : words that provoke a negative emotional response.
Neutral connotation : not good or bad ; indifferent ; used when the author doesn’t want to show strong emotions either way.
Sense Relations
Sense Relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates
Kinds of Sense Relations
SYNONYM
Synonym is a word that means exactly the same as or very nearly the same as, another world in the same language
ANTONYM
Antonym is a word which has opposite meaning.
POLYSEMY
Polysemi is a word that has many meaning, but it includes a central groove
HYPONYM
Hyponym is a word whose meaning is summarized in a broader sense
LEXICAL & GRAMMATICAL MEANING
Lexical (derivational morphology) studies word formation which produces new words. It changes part of speech and meaning.
Grammatical (inflection morphology) studies word formation related to grammar. It does not change part of speech and meaning, but give signal grammatical information
Parallelism
The document discusses parallelism in grammar. It defines parallelism as two or more phrases or clauses in a sentence having the same grammatical structure. It provides examples of nonparallel and parallel constructions and how to correct nonparallel structures by making coordinated elements grammatically alike, such as changing an adjective to an adverb or adding a preposition. The document contains multiple sections with mixed constructions and their parallel corrections.
Devices used in Poetry
This document defines and provides examples of various sonic and literary devices used in poetry. It discusses sound devices such as alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia, and rhyme. It also covers common figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, and oxymoron. Finally, it briefly mentions symbolism and allusion.
Structure of English (A Definition)
Objectives:How do we study SoE, The three-part model of English, Outline structure of English, Basic constituent analysis of a sentence, morphology, Definition of SoE
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Chapter 3
This document provides Chinese words that express groups and their English definitions:
1. 一道 (yí dào) means together or one, depending on the context, and is used to refer to steps, long thin objects, commands, questions, dishes, or walls surrounding something.
2. 一批 (yì pī) refers to a group, stock, batch, collection, or pile.
3. 一系列的 (yí xì liè de) means a sequence or series, such as a series of concerts arranged by a band.
Chapter 7
The document provides a list of common Chinese idioms and structures used to connect and compare ideas:
1) It lists several common idiomatic structures used in Chinese to connect ideas, such as "A ba... bù A ba..." meaning doing something or not doing it both have pros and cons, and "chú le...jiù shì..." meaning one thing or another with no other options.
2) It also lists structures used to indicate alternating occurrences like "yí huì’er....yí huì’er...." and structures used to show consequences like "fǒu zé" meaning "otherwise".
3) Additionally, it provides connectors for comparisons ("jì........y
Chapter 4
Méi negates past actions and the existence of feelings in the past, while bù negates present and future actions and current or future feelings. Méi is used to talk about not liking someone in the past, while bù expresses not currently liking someone. The only exception is the verb zhī dào, which uses méi rather than a non-existent "méi zhī dào" expression to negate knowing something.
Chapter 8
This document provides a list of important Chinese vocabulary words with their definitions and examples. It explains that knowing the precise meanings and appropriate uses of synonyms is important in Chinese as they do not always have interchangeable meanings. The list defines words like "索赔" meaning to ask for compensation, "假装" meaning to pretend, "藏" meaning to conceal or hide something concrete, "隐瞒" meaning to conceal an abstract subject or idea, and "隐藏" meaning to hide or conceal. Examples are provided to illustrate the meanings and proper uses of each word.
Chapter 1
This document provides an explanatory guide to key rules of tone change in Mandarin Chinese. It outlines that the character "不" changes to a second tone when preceding a fourth tone character, such as in "不对". It also notes that when two third tones are together, the first becomes a second tone, like in "你好". The character "一" is first tone alone but becomes second tone after a fourth tone, and fourth tone before first, second or third tones, as shown in examples like "一定", "一些", and "一点".
Chapter 2
This document summarizes the usage of common Chinese grammatical particles including 的, 得, 地, 了, 呢, 吧 as well as words like 出, 来, 去, 到, 住, 下, 上, 就, 给, 掉, 所, 可, 并, 却, 而, 行, 约, 算, 断, 尽, 吃, 过, 偏, 干嘛, 下来, 下去, 出来, 过来. It explains how these particles are used to connect words, emphasize actions, indicate directions or
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land.
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9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
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2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
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Chapter 5
- 1. Chinese emotional particles Exclamation particles are used as a method of recording aspects of human speech which may not be based entirely on meaning and definition. Specific characters are used to record exclamations, as with any other form of Chinese vocabulary, some characters exclusively representing the expression (such as 哼), others sharing characters with alternate words and meanings (such as 可). As with all Chinese characters, exclamation particles span only one syllable, and are formed in the same structure as other Chinese words. Here is a list of some of the most commonly used: 哈哈，哇，啊，嘿，哦，嘛，呗 ……