This document discusses allergy and hypersensitivity reactions. It covers the epidemiology of allergies, noting that over 25% of Americans have some type of allergy. It describes the pathophysiology of different types of hypersensitivity reactions, including Type I reactions mediated by IgE antibodies which can result in anaphylaxis, and Type IV cell-mediated delayed reactions. It also discusses non-allergic pseudoallergic reactions that can be caused by certain drugs damaging mast cells.
To watch my animated viedo on YouTube visit
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVHDGWfQhSU
To download my animated presentation visit:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/bbtayufrn1clnvh/Anaphylaxis.pptx
To watch my animated viedo on YouTube visit
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVHDGWfQhSU
To download my animated presentation visit:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/bbtayufrn1clnvh/Anaphylaxis.pptx
Hypersensitivity (Allergy) - Drug allergy, Contact dermatitis, Allergic asthmaAvinandan Jana
A condition in which the immune system reacts abnormally to a foreign substance.
Drug allergy
An abnormal reaction of the immune system to a medication.
Food allergies
An unpleasant or dangerous immune system reaction after a certain food is eaten.
Contact dermatitis
A skin rash caused by contact with a certain substance.
Latex allergy
An allergic reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex.
Allergic asthma
Asthma triggered by exposure to the same substances that trigger allergy symptoms.
Seasonal allergies
An allergic response causing itchy, watery eyes, sneezing and other similar symptoms.
Animal allergy
An abnormal immune reaction to proteins in an animal's skin cells, saliva or urine.
Anaphylaxis
A severe, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction.
Allergy to mold
An abnormal allergic reaction to mould spores.
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) refers to undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity.
Hypersensitivity (Allergy) - Drug allergy, Contact dermatitis, Allergic asthmaAvinandan Jana
A condition in which the immune system reacts abnormally to a foreign substance.
Drug allergy
An abnormal reaction of the immune system to a medication.
Food allergies
An unpleasant or dangerous immune system reaction after a certain food is eaten.
Contact dermatitis
A skin rash caused by contact with a certain substance.
Latex allergy
An allergic reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex.
Allergic asthma
Asthma triggered by exposure to the same substances that trigger allergy symptoms.
Seasonal allergies
An allergic response causing itchy, watery eyes, sneezing and other similar symptoms.
Animal allergy
An abnormal immune reaction to proteins in an animal's skin cells, saliva or urine.
Anaphylaxis
A severe, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction.
Allergy to mold
An abnormal allergic reaction to mould spores.
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) refers to undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity.
hypersensitivity Undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system. Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune response that results in tissue damage and is manifested in the individual on a second or subsequent contact with an antigen. Hypersensitivity reactions can be classified as either immediate or delayed. Obviously immediate reactions appear faster than delayed ones, but the main difference between them is the nature of the immune response to the antigen.
Normally, immune responses eradicate infectious pathogens without serious injury to host tissues.
However, these responses are sometimes
inadequately controlled
inappropriately targeted to host tissues
triggered by commensal microorganisms or environmental antigens that are usually harmless.
In these situations, the normally beneficial immune response is the cause of disease.
Disorders caused by immune responses are called hypersensitivity diseases.
This term , hypersensitivity , arose from the clinical definition of immunity as sensitivity, which is based on the observation that an individual who has been exposed to an antigen exhibits a detectable reaction, or is sensitive, to subsequent encounters with that antigen.
Today, we will describe the pathogenesis of different types of hypersensitivity reactions, with an emphasis on the effector mechanisms that cause tissue injury.
A variety of human diseases are caused by immune responses to non-microbial environmental antigens, and involve the type 2 cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13 produced by Th2 cells and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), immunoglobulin E (IgE), mast cells, and eosinophils.
The antigens that elicit immediate hypersensitivity are called allergens. Most of them are common environmental proteins, animal products, and chemicals that can modify self proteins.
In the effector phase of these responses, mast cells and eosinophils are activated to rapidly release mediators that cause
increased vascular permeability
Vasodilation
bronchial and visceral smooth muscle contraction
This vascular reaction is called immediate hypersensitivity because it begins rapidly, within minutes of antigen challenge in a previously sensitized individual (immediate), and has major pathologic consequences (hypersensitivity).
Following the immediate response, there is a more slowly developing inflammatory component called the late-phase reaction characterized by the accumulation of neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages.
Type 1 2 3 and 4 hypersensitivity reactions
Their mechanism of actions and advantages and disadvantages
Introduction
Categories
Causes
Diagnosis
Signs and symptoms
Hypersensitivity reactions for Medical StudentsNCRIMS, Meerut
Hypersensitivity (animated) for MBBS Students
Hypersensitivity refers to undesirable (damaging, discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the normal immune system.
Hypersensitivity reactions require a pre-sensitized state of the host.
Four types of hypersensitivity
Type I – anaphylactic
Type II – cytotoxic
Type III – immune complex mediated
Type IV – contact, tuberculin and granulomatous
Anaphylaxis is defined as a life-threatening allergic reaction set in action by a wide range of antigens and involving multiple organ systems.
The true incidence is difficult to estimate, but in 1973 the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program reported six anaphylactic reactions and 0.87 deaths from anaphylaxis per 10,000 patients.
Reactions to insect stings alone are responsible for at least 50 deaths in the United States each year.
These figures reveal the importance of continued research into the biology of anaphylaxis along with developing new (and improving existing) therapies.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. 2
Allergy
Allergic disorders are increasing in
prevalence and contributing significantly to
health care costs
One of the most common medical emergencies that
can occur in the dental office is that of an acute
allergic reaction
A requirement of every dental practitioner is a basic
understanding of the pathophysiology of such
reactions, as well as risk factors and clinical
manifestations
3. 3
Allergy (cont’d)
Such knowledge will permit meeting the goals of
safe and effective dental treatment
To identify patients with a true allergic history, so acute
medical emergencies potentially occurring in the dental
office because of an allergic reaction can be prevented
To recognize head, neck, and oral tissue changes that
might be caused by an allergic reaction
To identify and plan appropriate dental care for patients
who have severe alterations of the immune system
secondary to irradiation or drug therapy or related to an
immune deficiency disorder
To recognize signs and symptoms of acute allergic
reactions and to manage these problems appropriately
4. 4
Epidemiology
Allergy is an abnormal or hypersensitive
response of the immune system to a
substance introduced into the body
It is estimated that more than 25% of all Americans
demonstrate an allergy to some substance, including
10 to 20% who have allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, 7%
who have a diagnosed food allergy, 7% who have
asthma, 4% who are allergic to insect stings, and
5% who are allergic to one or more drugs
5. 5
Epidemiology (cont’d)
About a 1% to 3% risk for an allergic reaction
is associated with administration of any drug
Drugs are the most common cause of
urticarial reactions in adults, and food and
infection are the most common causes of
these lesions in children
Urticaria occurs in 15% to 20% of young adults
In approximately 70% of patients with chronic
urticaria, no etiologic agent can be identified
6. 6
Epidemiology (cont’d)
Anaphylaxis in dental practice is estimated to
occur in 0.004 to 0.015 cases per dentist per
year
About 10% of people who take penicillin develop an
allergic reaction and 0.04% to 0.2% of these
experience anaphylaxis
Death occurs in about 1% to 10% of those persons
who experience an anaphylactic reaction
Usually, in anaphylactic reactions to penicillin, death
occurs within 15 minutes after drug administration
7. 7
Epidemiology (cont’d)
In rare cases, antihistamines have been
reported to cause urticaria through an allergic
response to the colored coating material of
the capsule
In addition, azo and nonazo dyes used in toothpaste
have been reported to cause anaphylactic-like
reactions
Aniline dyes used to coat certain steroid tablets have
caused serious allergic reactions as well
8. 8
Epidemiology (cont’d)
Parabens (used as preservatives in local
anesthetics) have caused anaphylactoid
reactions
Sulfites (sodium metabisulfite or acetone sodium
bisulfite) used in local anesthetic solutions to prevent
oxidation of the vasoconstrictors can cause serious
allergic reactions
The group most susceptible to allergic reactions caused
by sulfites includes the 9 to 11 million persons in the U.S.
in whom asthma has been diagnosed
Allergy to latex occurs in between 1% and 6% of the
general population, and much more commonly in persons
who have spina bifida
9. 9
Etiology
Foreign substances that trigger hypersensitivity
reactions are called allergens or antigens
Two types of lymphocytes play central roles in the two
branches of the specific immune system
B lymphocytes in the humoral branch
T lymphocytes in the cellular branch
10. 10
Pathophysiology and Complications
Humoral immune system
B lymphocytes recognize specific foreign chemical
configurations via receptors on their cell membranes
For the antigen to be recognized by specific
B lymphocytes, it must first be processed by
T lymphocytes and macrophages
Once recognition has taken place, B lymphocytes
differentiate and multiply, forming plasma cells and
memory B lymphocytes
11. 11
Humoral Immune System
Memory B lymphocytes remain inactive until
contact is made with the same type of antigen
This contact transforms the memory cell into a
plasma cell that produces immunoglobulins
(antibodies) specific for the antigen involved
There are five classes of immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulin E is the key antibody involved in the
pathogenesis of type I hypersensitivity reactions
12. 12
Humoral Immune System (cont’d)
Type I, type II, and type III hypersensitivity
reactions involve elements of the humoral
immune system
Type I sensitivity is an IgE-mediated reaction that
leads to the release of chemical mediators from
mast cells and basophils in various target tissues
The role of IgE is clear in such reactions, but that of
the other sensitizing antibody, IgG, is not well
understood
13. 13
Type I Hypersensitivity
Type I hypersensitivity reactions commonly
are caused by food substances, antibiotics,
and insect bites
They are related to the humoral immune system and
usually occur soon after second contact with an
antigen (however, many people have repeated
contacts with a specific drug or material before they
become allergic to it)
14. 14
Type I Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Anaphylaxis is an acute reaction involving the
smooth muscle of the bronchi in which
antigen–IgE antibody complexes form on the
surface of mast cells, which causes sudden
histamine release from these cells
Release of histamine, as well as other vasoactive
mediators, leads to smooth muscle contraction and
increased vascular permeability
The potential end result is acute respiratory
compromise and cardiovascular collapse
15. 15
Type I Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Atopy is a hypersensitivity state that is
influenced by hereditary factors
Hay fever, asthma, urticaria, and angioedema are
examples of atopic reactions
Lesions most commonly associated with atopic
reactions include urticaria, which is a superficial
lesion of the skin, and angioedema, which is a lesion
that occurs in the deep dermis or subcutaneous
tissue and often involves diffuse enlargement of the
lips, infraorbital tissues, larynx, or tongue
16. 16
Type I Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
There are many types of angioedema
Three types of interest to dentistry are acquired (allergic-
based), drug-induced, and hereditary angioedema
Drug-induced angioedema results from impaired
bradykinin degradation after administration of certain
drugs, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
The hereditary form is due to a deficiency or dysfunction
of complement C1 inhibitor, which can be triggered by
trauma, thus leading to activation of the complement
cascade and Hageman factor (factor XII) and
overproduction of bradykinin
17. 17
Type II Hypersensitivity
These reactions are IgG- or IgM-mediated
reactions that result in destruction of the
targeted cells by complement and antibodies
The classic example of type II (cytotoxic)
hypersensitivity is transfusion reaction caused by
mismatched blood
18. 18
Type III Hypersensitivity
These reactions occur when there is excess
antigen in the bloodstream
The antigen-antibody complexes migrate under the
membrane of small blood vessels, which sets off the
complement cascade
This leads to an inflammatory response with key
features of vasculitis, swelling and pain
Clinical examples include systemic lupus
erythematosus and streptococcal glomerulonephritis
19. 19
Cellular Immune System
In the cellular or delayed immune system,
T lymphocytes play the central role
The primary function of this system is to recognize
and eradicate antigens that are fixed in tissue or
within cells
This system is involved in protection against viruses,
tuberculosis, and leprosy
Antibodies are not operative in the cell-mediated
immune system
Effector T lymphocytes produce various cytokines
that serve as active agents of this system
20. 20
Type IV Hypersensitivity
Type IV hypersensitivity, involving the cellular
immune system, include infectious contact
dermatitis, transplant rejection, graft-versus-host
disease
Events in type IV hypersensitivity, which may involve
dendritic cells and Langerhans cells, present the antigen to
undifferentiated T lymphocytes
Some of the more common antigens that cause contact
dermatitis include metal jewelry, perfumes, rubber products,
chemicals such as formaldehyde, and medicines such as
topical anesthetics
Reactions usually appear 2-3 days after allergen contact
21. 21
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Infectious-type allergic reactions are
exemplified by the tuberculin skin test
A person who has previously been exposed to
Mycobacterium tuberculosis develops, after a
second exposure in the form of an intradermal
injection of altered bacteria, a delayed response—
usually within 48 to 72 hours
22. 22
Type IV Hypersensitivity Reactions
(cont’d)
Graft rejection occurs when organs or tissues
from one body are transplanted into another
Cellular rejection of transplanted tissue occurs unless the
donor and recipient are genetically identical or the host
immune response has been suppressed
Graft-versus-host reaction is an unusual phenomenon
that occurs in bone marrow transplant recipients whose
cellular immune system has been rendered deficient by
whole body irradiation
Lymphocytes transferred to the host try to attack tissues
24. 24
Nonallergic Reactions/
Pseudoallergy
Other agents may cause mast cells to release
their mediators without inciting a true allergic
reaction
This occurs in cases of chronic urticaria caused by
certain drugs, temperature changes, and emotional
states, and in some reactions to drugs
Most so-called anaphylactic reactions to local anesthetics
do not involve an antigen-antibody reaction but result
from damage to the mast cells caused by other
mechanisms
These reactions are referred to as anaphylactoid or
anaphylaxis-like
25. 25
Nonallergic Reactions/
Pseudoallergy (cont’d)
From the clinical standpoint, approaches to
management of anaphylactic and
anaphylactoid reactions are similar
These types of drug reactions are viewed as true
allergic reactions
Nonallergic cases of urticaria, angioedema, and
anaphylactoid reactions are caused by the
nonspecific release of vasoactive amines from mast
cells or by the activation of other forms of
nonspecific immunologic effectors involving the
complement system and Hageman factor–
dependent pathway
26. 26
Laboratory and
Diagnostic Findings
Patients with IgE mediated allergy can have
elevated levels of total IgE, allergen-specific
IgE and eosinophils in their serum or nasal
passages, and will test positive to a specific
allergen following skin testing
Tryptase blood tests are helpful in diagnosing
anaphylaxis
27. 27
Medical Management
Patients with atopy may be given injections to
gradually desensitize them so that they are no
longer allergic to the antigen
Some patients with severe asthma may be forced to
move to an area of the country that does not contain the
antigen
Patients with asthma, immune complex injury, or
cytotoxic immune reactions may be treated with
systemic steroids
Those with hay fever or urticaria are treated with
antihistamines
28. 28
Medical Management (cont’d)
Newer antihistamines are highly effective and
produce fewer side effects (e.g., drowsiness)
These agents differ in a number of ways (tablet size,
duration of effect, efficacy, triggering sleepiness, adverse
effects, drug interactions, price)
A variety of treatments have been used for patients with
contact dermatitis
From a dental standpoint, the patient being treated for
allergies has an increased chance of being allergic to
another substance
In a person taking steroids, the body’s reaction to stress
may be impaired
29. 29
Dental Management
Identification and Risk Assessment
One of the most common concerns is patient-
reported allergy to a local anesthetic,
antibiotic, or analgesic
The history then must be expanded, with specific
efforts made to determine exactly what the offending
substance was and exactly how the patient reacted
to it
30. 30
Identification and
Risk Assessment
If the adverse reaction was of an allergic
nature, one or more of the classic signs or
symptoms of allergy should have been
present
If these signs or symptoms were not reported, the
patient probably did not experience a true allergic
reaction
Common examples of reactions mislabeled as
“allergy” are syncope after injection of a local
anesthetic and nausea or vomiting after injection of
codeine
31. 31
Anesthetics
A common reaction to local anesthetics
involves an anxious patient who, because of
concern about receiving a “shot,” experiences
a psychogenic reaction that includes
hyperventilation, tachycardia, sweating,
paleness, and syncope
Local anesthetics containing a vasoconstrictor can
cause an epinephrine reaction (tachycardia,
sweating, paleness), which usually results from
inadvertent intravenous injection
32. 32
Anesthetics (cont’d)
If the patient’s history supports a toxic or
vasoconstrictor reaction
The dentist should explain the nature of the previous
reaction and should avoid injecting the local
anesthetic solution intravenously by aspirating
before the injection and limiting the amount of
solution to the recommended dose
If the patient’s history supports an
interpretation of fainting and not a toxic or
allergic reaction
The dentist’s primary task will be to work with the
patient to reduce anxiety during dental visits
33. 33
Anesthetics (cont’d)
If the history supports a true allergic reaction
to the local anesthetic
The dentist should try to identify the type of local
anesthetic that was used
Once this has been ascertained, a new anesthetic
with a different basic chemical structure can be used
34. 34
Anesthetics (cont’d)
The two main groups of local anesthetics in
dentistry consist of
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) esters
Amides
Benzoic acid ester anesthetics may cross-
react with each other, whereas amide
anesthetics usually do not cross-react
Cross-reaction does not occur between ester and
amide local anesthetics
35. 35
Anesthetics (cont’d)
Procaine is the local anesthetic associated
with the highest incidence of allergic
reactions
Currently, it is available only in multidose vials
Its antigenic component appears to be PABA, one of
the metabolic breakdown products of procaine
36. 36
Anesthetics (cont’d)
Cross-reactivity has been reported between
lidocaine and procaine (however, this
potentially was due to the presence of a
germicide, methylparaben, which previously
was used in small amounts as a preservative
and is chemically similar to PABA)
Methylparaben is no longer used as a preservative,
so this problem is no longer a concern
37. 37
Anesthetics (cont’d)
Patients who have been allergic to local
anesthetics but who cannot identify the
specific agent to which they have reacted
present more of a diagnostic problem
If the reaction is consistent with an allergic reaction,
the next step should be to attempt to identify the
anesthetic used
When the patient is unable to provide this
information, the dentist can attempt to contact the
previous dentist involved
38. 38
Anesthetics (cont’d)
If this fails, two additional options are
available
An antihistamine (e.g., diphenhydramine [Benadryl])
can be used as the local anesthetic
The patient may be referred to an allergist for
provocative drug testing (PDT)
39. 39
Anesthetics (cont’d)
A 1% solution of diphenhydramine that contains
1:100,000 epinephrine can be easily
compounded by a pharmacist, but it must be
confirmed that methylparaben is not used as a
preservative
This solution induces anesthesia of about 30 minutes
average duration and can be used for infiltration or block
injection
When it is used for a mandibular block, 1 to 4 mL of
solution is needed
No more than 50 mg of diphenhydramine should be given
during a single appointment
40. 40
Anesthetics (cont’d)
The dentist may elect to refer the patient to
an allergist for evaluation and testing, which
usually includes both skin testing and PDT
Most investigators agree that skin testing alone for
allergy to local anesthetic is of little benefit because
false-positive results are common (therefore, the
allergist also should perform PDT)
41. 41
Anesthetics (cont’d)
The allergist selects a local anesthetic for testing
that is least likely to cause an allergic reaction
(usually an anesthetic from the amide group that
does not cross-react with each other)
At 15-minute intervals, 0.1 mL of test solution is injected,
with concentrations increasing from 1:10,000 to 1:1,000
to 1:100 to 1:10, followed by undiluted solution; then, 0.5
mL of undiluted test solution is tried; and finally, 1 mL of
undiluted solution is given
Under these conditions, a local anesthetic that causes no
reaction can be used in the tested patient, and the risk of
an allergic reaction is no greater than in the general
population
42. 42
Anesthetics (cont’d)
When administering an alternative anesthetic
to a patient with a history of a local anesthetic
allergy
Inject slowly, aspirating first to make sure that a
vessel is not being injected
Place 1 drop of the solution into the tissues
Withdraw the needle and wait 5 minutes to see what
reaction, if any, occurs. If no allergic reaction occurs,
as much anesthetic as is needed for the procedure
should be deposited. (Be sure to aspirate before
giving the second injection.)
43. 43
Penicillin
Penicillin is used frequently throughout the
world and is a common cause of drug allergy
In the U.S., about 5% to 10% of the population is
allergic to penicillin and penicillin-related drugs
About 0.04% to 0.2% of patients treated with
penicillin develop an anaphylactic reaction
This is fatal in about 10% of these patients,
accounting for some 400 to 800 deaths per year
44. 44
Penicillin (cont’d)
The possibility of sensitizing a patient to
penicillin varies with different routes of
administration
Oral administration results in sensitization of only
about 0.1% of patients, intramuscular injection in
about 1% to 2%, and topical application in about 5%
to 12%
On the basis of these data, the use of penicillin in a
topical ointment is contraindicated
If the dentist has a choice, the oral route is
preferable for administration whenever possible
45. 45
Penicillin (cont’d)
Parenteral administration of penicillin evokes
a more serious reaction than that typically
associated with oral administration
Some investigators have suggested that the risk of
serious allergic reaction is great with both routes
Antibodies produced against penicillin cross-react
with the semi-synthetic penicillins and may cause
severe reactions in patients who are allergic to
penicillin
Synthetic penicillins seem to cause fewer new
sensitizations in patients not allergic to it at the time
of administration
46. 46
Penicillin (cont’d)
Skin testing for allergy to penicillin is much more
reliable than is skin testing for allergy to a local
anesthetic
To be cost-effective, the test should be conducted only on
patients with a history of penicillin reaction who
nevertheless need penicillin for a serious infection
Penicillin reactivity declines with time (hence, a patient
may have reacted to the drug years ago but is now no
longer sensitive
Most anaphylactic reactions to penicillin occur in patients
who have been treated in the past with penicillin but
reported no adverse reactions
47. 47
Penicillin (cont’d)
When skin testing for penicillin sensitivity is
performed, both metabolic breakdown products
of penicillin (the major derivative, penicilloyl
polylysine, and the minor derivative mixture)
must be tested
95% of penicillin is metabolized to the major determinant,
and 5%, to the minor determinants
If skin test results are negative for both breakdown
products, the patient is considered not allergic to
penicillin
If positive skin test results are obtained for one or both of
the breakdown products, the patient is considered to be
allergic to penicillin, and the drug not used
48. 48
Penicillin (cont’d)
In dentistry, a patient who self-reports allergy
to penicillin should be carefully interviewed to
determine the plausibility of the allergy
If the information provided is convincing, then the
patient is generally best treated with an alternative
antibiotic
For example, patients with a history of penicillin
allergy should be given erythromycin or clindamycin
for the treatment of oral infection or clindamycin for
prophylaxis against infective endocarditis
49. 49
Penicillin (cont’d)
Cephalosporins are often used as alternatives to
penicillins (however, cephalosporins cross-react
in 5% to 10% of penicillin-sensitive patients)
Cephalosporins usually can be used in patients with a
history of distant, nonserious reaction to penicillin
However, skin testing is recommended for these patients
by some investigators
If the penicillin skin test result is positive, a skin test for
the specific cephalosporin selected should be performed
50. 50
Penicillin (cont’d)
Patients with a negative history of allergy to
penicillin can be treated with the drug when
indicated, and it should be given by the oral
route
The patient is observed for 30 minutes after the first
dose, if possible, and is advised to seek immediate
care if any of the signs or symptoms of an allergic
reaction occur after he or she has left the dental
office
51. 51
Analgesics
Aspirin may cause gastrointestinal upset, but this
problem can be avoided if it is taken with food or
a glass of milk
Aspirin should not be used by patients with an ulcer,
gastritis, or a hiatal hernia, and should be used with care
by patients whose condition predisposes them to nausea,
vomiting, dyspepsia, or gastric ulceration
Aspirin also is known to prolong prothrombin time and to
inhibit platelet function, which is usually of little clinical
importance except in patients with a hemorrhagic disease
or a peptic ulcer
52. 52
Analgesics (cont’d)
Many people are allergic to salicylates
Aspirin provokes a severe reaction in some patients
with asthma
They may react in the same way to other
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that
inhibit cyclooxygenase, the key enzyme involved in
the generation of prostaglandin from arachidonic
acid
Most patients with asthma who react to NSAIDs also
have nasal polyps and nasal eosinophilia
53. 53
Analgesics (cont’d)
Many NSAIDs are available and most can cause
some degree of gastrointestinal irritation
NSAIDs should not be given to certain patients with
asthma, patients with an ulcer or hemorrhagic disease,
and those who are pregnant or nursing
Codeine is a narcotic analgesic that commonly is
used in dentistry
Emesis, nausea, and constipation may occur with
analgesic doses of codeine
Most of the reported reactions to codeine consist of
nonallergic gastrointestinal manifestations (nevertheless,
these may be severe enough to preclude the use of
codeine in certain patients)
54. 54
Dental Materials and Products
Type I, type III, and type IV hypersensitivity
reactions have been reported to result from
various dental materials and products
Topical anesthetic agents have been reported to cause
type I reactions consisting of urticarial swelling
Mouth rinses and toothpastes containing phenolic
compounds, antiseptics, astringents, or flavoring agents
have been known to cause type I, type III, or type IV
hypersensitivity reactions involving the oral mucosa or
lips
Hand soaps and some dental agents also have been
reported as a cause of type IV reactions
55. 55
Latex Rubber Products
A number of reports have demonstrated that
certain health care workers and patients are at
risk for hypersensitivity reactions to latex or
agents used in the production of rubber gloves or
related materials (e.g., rubber dams, blood
pressure cuff, catheters)
Although most cases in health providers are type IV
reactions, serious type I reactions may occur in
physicians, dentists, other health care workers, and
patients as a result of contact with latex products such as
gloves, rubber dams, or catheters
56. 56
Latex Rubber Products (cont’d)
Dentists should be aware that latex allergy
can manifest as anaphylaxis during dental
work when the patient or the dentist has been
sensitized to latex
Studies have shown that latex-allergic persons have
IgE antibodies for specific latex proteins
Nitrile gloves should be considered for use to
minimize these adverse reactions to latex proteins
57. 57
Hereditary Angioedema
Hereditary angioedema is a condition that can be
provoked by infection, stress, dental surgery or
trauma and is best managed by implementation
of preventive measures
Androgens such as danazol and stanozolol, which
increase hepatic production of C1 inhibitor, help to
decrease the number and severity of attacks
Newer agents that include C1 inhibitor concentrate
(Cinryze or Berinert) show benefit but are expensive
Use of such preventive agents is important, because
hereditary angioedema does not respond well to
epinephrine or antihistamines
58. 58
Treatment Planning Modifications
The dentist should obtain from each patient a
history of any allergic reactions
If a patient has a history of allergy to drugs or
materials that may be used in dentistry, a clear entry
should be made in the dental record, and any further
contact with or use of the antigen(s) should be
avoided
Most allergic patients can receive any indicated
dental treatment so long as the antigen is avoided
and precautions are taken for patients receiving
steroid or those known to have angioedema
59. 59
Type I Hypersensitivity
Oral lesions can be produced by type I
hypersensitivity reactions
Atopic reactions to various foods, drugs, or anesthetic
agents may occur within or around the oral cavity and
usually are characterized by urticarial swelling or
angioedema
The reaction generally is rapid, with soft tissue swelling
within a short time after contact with the antigen
Oral antihistamines should be given (oral
diphenhydramine, 50 mg every 4 hours, is the
recommended regimen)
Further contact with the antigen must be avoided
60. 60
Type III Hypersensitivity
Food, drugs, or agents that are placed within
the oral cavity can cause white,
erythematous, or ulcerative lesions as
determined by the presence of type III
hypersensitivity or immune complex reactions
These lesions usually develop within 24-hours after
contact is made with the offending antigen
Some cases of aphthous stomatitis may be caused
by type III hypersensitivity, but more are related to
an immune dysfunction that has not been fully
characterized
61. 61
Type III Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Erythema multiforme represents an immune
complex reaction that appears as
polymorphous eruption of macules, erosions,
and characteristic “target” lesions that are
symmetrically distributed on the skin and/or
mucosa
About half of the patients in whom erythema
multiforme is diagnosed are found to have a
predisposing factor, such as a drug allergy or a
herpes simplex infection, that is involved with the
onset of their disease
62. 62
Type III Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Many patients with erythema multiforme can
be treated with symptomatic therapy,
including a bland mouth rinse, syrup of
diphenhydramine, and topical or systemic
corticosteroids
If a drug appears to be associated with onset of the
disease, the drug should be withdrawn and any
further contact with it should be avoided
63. 63
Type IV Hypersensitivity
Contact stomatitis is a delayed allergic
reaction that is associated with the cellular
immune response in most cases
In many cases, no further treatment is necessary
once the source of the antigen has been identified
and removed from further contact with the patient
If the tissue reaction is severe or persistent, topical
corticosteroids should be used
64. 64
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Various dental materials, such as those used
to make impressions, have been reported as
the cause of allergic reactions in patients
Impression materials containing aromatic sulfonate
catalyst have been reported to cause a delayed
allergic reaction in postmenopausal women
The reactive lesion consisted of tissue ulceration
and necrosis that became progressively worse with
each exposure
65. 65
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Some investigators have reported oral lesions
may be found in close association with
amalgam restorations
These (mucosal) lesions have been described as
whitish, reddish, ulcerative, or “lichenoid,” and were
thought to be caused by toxic irritation or a
hypersensitivity reaction to the silver amalgam
restoration
Reports have suggested that some of the oral
lesions resulted from toxic injury to the mucosa, and
others were a result of type IV hypersensitivity
reaction to mercury in the amalgam
66. 66
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
No thorough studies have correlated
nonspecific symptoms such as depression,
fatigue, and headache with the effects of
mercury in amalgam restorations
The practice of avoiding the use of amalgam
restorations in patients with nonspecific symptoms
has, at present, no scientific basis
However, removal of any amalgam restorations in
contact with oral mucosa that shows lesions
consistent with a toxic or hypersensitivity reaction to
mercury is rational
67. 67
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
On rare occasions, dental composite
materials have been reported to cause
allergic reactions
The acrylic monomer used in denture construction
may cause an allergic reaction (however, the vast
majority of tissue changes under dentures result
from trauma and secondary infections with bacteria
or fungi)
Gold, nickel, and mercury have been reported to
cause allergic reactions that result in tissue
erythema and ulceration
68. 68
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
The dentist may wish to test agents that are
thought to be possible antigens that cause
oral lesions
In most cases, a reaction is not expected to develop
for at least 48 to 72 hours
Skin testing and oral epimucous testing for potential
antigens are not foolproof, by any means (in certain
patients, they yield unreliable tissue responses)
69. 69
Type IV Hypersensitivity (cont’d)
Basic management of contact stomatitis
requires removal of common sources of
antigens known to cause hypersensitivity
reactions and assessment for lesion healing
Skin or mucosal testing for sensitivity also can be
performed
If the lesions persist, topical steroids can be applied
70. 70
Lichenoid Drug Eruptions
Some patients with skin or oral lesions
identical to those of lichen planus will be
found to have taken certain drugs before
appearance of the lesions
The agents most commonly associated with the
onset of lichenoid lesions are levamisole (Levantine)
and the quinidine drugs
Biopsy specimens of a lichenoid lesion show a
microscopic picture similar to that seen in lichen
planus, with the additional finding of eosinophils in
the subepithelial infiltrate
71. 71
Management of SevereType I
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Even when the dentist has taken appropriate
precautions, an allergic reaction may occur
In handling the anaphylactic reaction, the dentist
should remember that it has an allergic origin
The reaction occurs soon (within minutes) after
injection, ingestion, or application of a topical
anesthetic, medication, local anesthetic, or dental
product
72. 72
Management of SevereType I
Hypersensitivity Reactions (cont’d)
The dentist must take the following actions
immediately
Place the patient in a head-down or supine position
Make certain the airway is open
Administer oxygen
Be prepared to send for help and to support
respiration and circulation
If these initial steps have not resolved the
emergency situation, and the cause is highly likely to
be allergic, the dentist is faced with an edematous-
type or anaphylactic reaction
73. 73
Angioedema
The dentist must take additional emergency
steps to prevent death from respiratory failure
Activate emergency medical service (EMS)
Inject 0.3 to 0.5 mL of 1:1,000 epinephrine by an
intramuscular (into the tongue) or subcutaneous
route
Supplement with intravenous diphenhydramine (50
to 100 mg) if needed
74. 74
Angioedema (cont’d)
Additional emergency steps to prevent death
from respiratory failure (continued)
Support respiration, if indicated, by mouth-to-mouth
breathing or bag and mask (the dentist should make
sure the chest moves when either of these methods
is used)
Check the carotid or femoral pulse (if a pulse cannot
be detected, closed-chest cardiac massage should
be initiated)
Confirm that emergency medical service is on their
way, and transport to medical facility if needed
75. 75
Anaphylaxis
An anaphylactic reaction usually takes place
within minutes but may take longer
In contrast to a severe edematous reaction, in which
respiratory depression occurs first, both respiratory
and circulatory components of depression occur
early in the anaphylactic reaction
77. 77
Questions to Ask Patient
■ Are you allergic to anything? If so, what are you allergic to?
■ What kind of symptoms did you have when you experienced
this allergic reaction?
■ How long ago was this allergic reaction?
■ If patient believes he/she had a reaction to local anesthetic but
cannot remember what it was, ask who their previous dentist
was and attempt to contact them.
■ Have you ever been to an allergist and received provocative
drug testing?
78. 78
Dental Products to
Recommend to Patient
■ Fluoridated products (dentifrices, mouth rinses)
■ Dy mouth products for patients experiencing xerostomia
■ If patient presents with nut allergy, recommend fluoride gel
trays, rather than fluoride varnish.
■ If patient presents with milk allergy, avoid MI paste. (Milk-
protein derivatives) Recommend Sensodyne.