Cell Membrane Permeability Lab

Cell Membrane Permeability Lab
Test results concerning the permeability of cell membranes found that temperature stress effected
the function of cell membranes. The test exhibited that cell membrane function is altered at
temperature extremes relative to room temperature or 23°C. The test results found that the further
the temperature was from room temperature the higher the betacyanin concentration was in the
water meaning that the betacyanin escaped the cell membrane indicating a change in its
functionality from the control; the control being the test done at room temperature (23°C) and
resulting in an average colorimeter reading of 0.0098 units of optical density (see figure 1). All other
temperatures resulted in a higher average reading for absorbance of betacyanin, meaning that more
betacyanin was released from the cells. The highest level of absorbance was in the sample exposed
to –15°C at 0.5115 units of optical density, with the second highest at 70°C reading at 0.2518 units
of optical density. The readings at 10°C, 40°C, and 55°C had absorbance levels of 0.0989, 0.0228,
and 0.029 units of optical density respectively (see figure 1). This data shows that more extreme
temperatures resulted in a higher release of Betacyanin from cells exposed to ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The study found a correlation between temperature and cell membrane permeability especially in
cells exposed to temperatures greater than 40°C (Bischof et al., 1995). These tests were performed
on skeletal muscle cells taken from a lab mouse indicating that this phenomenon is not specific to
beet cells or plant cells but rather a result of the nature of the phospholipid bilayer structure of the
plasma membrane (Bischof et al., 1995). This study serves as a verification that the results found in
the experiment is not a result of the specific structure of beet tissue
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Solute Concentration, Particle Size, And A Membrane 's...
Objective: The overall purpose of this experiment is to determine how solute concentration, particle
size, and a membrane's selective permeability affect the occurrence of diffusion.
Hypothesis: In exercise one, as potassium permanganate's molecular mass (158.03 g/mol) being less
than half that of methylene blue (319.85 g/mol), KMnO4 is expected to further diffuse in the agar
plate due to the negative correlation associated with particle size and rate of diffusion rate with a
semipermeable membrane. With this correlation in mind, it is expected a color change would occur
only within the tube, as starch would remain in a dialysis tube while iodine is able to enter the tube
due to starch's relatively larger molecular size in comparison to iodine. Additionally, a selectively
permeable dialysis tube containing a higher solute concentration in comparison to its surrounding
solution should gain volume and the opposite (decreased volume) with a tube in a hyperosmotic
solution because osmosis of water, rather than diffusion of sucrose, from a high water concentration
(distilled water solution) to that of a lower water concentration (within the sucrose bag).
Background and Introduction Within this experiment's purpose, understanding of the cell membrane,
diffusion, and osmosis must first be known. As a part of all living cells, the membrane is meant to
serve as a semipermeable barrier between what is inside, intracellular, and outside of the cell,
extracellular, as well as

Do Some Particles Move By Diffusion? How Can A Model Be...
Problem: Do some particles move by Diffusion? How can a model be created to simulate cell
membranes and permeability?
Background: The Plasma membrane is mainly composed up of phospholipids and proteins. The cell
membrane determines which molecules can diffuse through the cell. This characteristic of a cell
membrane is called selective permeability. Many cells are semi permeable which means that they
allow only certain molecules in or out of the the cell. Remember back to the Carbohydrate lab and
that starch turns dark midnight blue when tested with Iodine. Also remember that cells are composed
up of so many different things suspended in a matrix of so many different things.
In this investigation, you will: Use any materials listed or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
You must have it approved by your teacher before you start collecting data.
Gather all necessary materials:
1 Great Value Baggie, 1 Brand Sandwich Baggie, 8 Graduated Cylinders, 2 Rubber Bands, 2
Beakers, Pen/Pencil
2. Pour 20 ml of water into two graduated cylinders, pour 20 ml of dirt into another pair (2) of
graduated cylinders, pour 20 ml of iodine into another pair of graduated cylinders, and pour 20 ml of
starch into another pair of graduated cylinders. All 8 graduated cylinders should be filled with 20 ml
of a substance.
3. Afterwards, pour 20 ml of starch into two beakers. Both beakers should have 20 ml of starch.
4. Pour 20 ml of iodine into the great value baggie. Once you do, pour 20 ml of dirt and 20 ml of
water into it as well. Repeat this with the sandwich baggie. The dirt represents the organelles and the
water represents the cytoplasm.
5. Place one baggie into a beaker of starch and the other into the other beaker of starch. The baggies
will help to model the cell membrane and cell.
6. Check to see your results and begin collecting data. An important piece of data to collect is
whether iodine or anything spills out of either baggies.

Results: In this experiment, both baggies leaked out iodine into the starch. This was demonstrated
when the starch surrounding the baggies turned dark purple. The color of the starch changed from
white/grey into a darkish purple. When iodine mixes with a

How Does Temperature Affect The Permeability Of The Plasma...
Introduction
Membranes contain phospholipid bilayer these are two layers of phospholipids which are facing in
opposite directions to each other. The non–polar tails are hydrophobic which are water–hating, what
makes it difficult for polar molecules/ions to pass through them are the fatty acid tails which also act
as a barrier to water–soluble substances. These molecules move in and out of the cell by diffusion,
osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles down a concentration
gradient for example when gases move about and will move from where there is a high
concentration to where they are in lower concentration. By osmosis, the diffusion of water through
the plasma membrane is possible because the lipids bilayers are water–resistant to important
molecules and small molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide, these molecules and ions diffuse
freely across the cell membrane. By active transport, ions and molecules are forced using metabolic
energy to move against their concentrated gradient. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will lead to a higher reading on the colorimeter. At about 59°C proteins start to become
denatured losing their shape preventing the normal movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Above 60°C proteins become totally denatured. At these temperatures the fatty acid melts leading to
a reduced stability of the membrane.
Betalain are the red coloured pigment which happens in the vacuoles of the beetroot cell, a
membrane called the tonoplast is what surrounds each vacuole. The leakage of the beetroot red
coloured pigment which is the Betalain, out of the cell will determine how permeable the cell
membrane is at a certain time. As the water gets darker by the dye more light is

The Cell : Transport Mechanisms And Cell Permeability
The Cell: Transport Mechanisms and Cell Permeability
Hunter Dockery
Biology 2101
Derek Draper
September 15, 2016
Introduction
Cells are a highly complex entity and is both structurally and functionally the basic unit of all living
things. Cells are an important and vital part in order to sustain life. Cells are highly diverse and their
specific roles are dependent on shape and internal composition. Cells are what carry out functions to
promote life, including: reproduction, nutrient digestion, and metabolism. The cell has many
components including the nucleus, cytoplasm, many organelles, and a plasma membrane. The
nucleus contains all of the genetic material and genes, which are found in the DNA. The nucleus is
the control center of the cell as it is key for cell reproduction. The nucleus is surrounded in a
membrane called the nuclear envelope for protection and regulation of materials in and out of the
nucleus. Cytoplasm is what all of the cell contents is referred to outside of the nucleus. This includes
all the high specific metabolic machinery called organelles. A list of organelles include: Ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and centrioles.
Ribosomes are free floating spherical bodies of RNA and proteins which are the site for protein
synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum is broken into two structures, the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. Rough ER provides area for storage and transport of proteins

Beetroot Cell Membrane Permeability Experiment
Practical Assessment
Planning
AIM
Beetroot cells contain a red pigment, which is stored in the cell vacuole and a vacuole membrane to
prevent this leaking out of the cell surrounds it. The outer of the cell is also surrounded by a
membrane, which again helps contain the pigment inside the cell. In this experiment I aim to find
out the relationship between the leakage of red pigment from a beetroot cell and the surface area. To
do this successfully I will need to alter the surface area of the beetroot cells accurately and then
measure if any and how much dye is let out. I can hopefully then look at my results and then find a
relationship between the two factors and be able to explain exactly why any changes took place.
PREDICTION
For ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For this reason the water used will be at room temperature (23° approx) and will be performed on
the same day to allow no margin for any discrepancies.
Time – Time is an important factor. When leaving the beetroot in the test tubes it must be ensured
that they are in the water for exactly 20 minutes each. This will make sure that the same period of
time is given for dye leakage to occur. To control this, putting the beetroot into each test tube two
minutes apart will give enough time for them to be removed before the next test tube is ready to
have its contents removed.
pH – pH can affect the structure of a membrane and therefore cause it to be unable to function
efficiently. The pH's, which cause this affect, would be those that are acid or alkaline. Therefore we
must use water as our substance as it has a pH 7 and this is neutral and will have no affect on the
leakage of pigment.
APPARARATUS
·Safety goggles

·Cutting mat
·Test tube holder
·5 test tubes
·2 x 25 ml beaker
·Raw beetroot
·Mounted needle
·Cork borer or scalpel
·Stop watch
·Colorimeter
METHOD
1.Collect all the equipment required.
2.Use a cork borer to cut cylinders of raw beetroot. Ensure that all cuts made are at a vertical angle
and that each individual slice of beetroot is exactly 3mm in thickness. Cut five discs, as this will
provide a good enough range of results to draw a graph and also to make conclusions as to why the

The Effect Of Acid Concentrations Increases Permeability...
Change in pH concentrations increases permeability of beetroot (‎
Beta vulgaris) cell membranes
indicated through color intensity using the spectrophotometer
Joshua Elekwa
Introduction to cell Biology, Fall 2014
Mount Royal University
ABSTRACT
The cell membrane (Plasma membrane) functions to provide cell support, cell stability and control
entry and exit of materials from the cell. This study was conducted to test the effects of
environmental conditions such as the on beet root cell membrane (Beta vulgaris). Five trials using
varied pH concentrations were tested and absorbance rates were monitored. The experimental results
showed that the protein function decreased sequentially when the pH decreased. This allowed the
betacyanin dye to leak out which created the color that was needed to determine the intensity and
therefore the effect of the circumstances. This supported the hypothesis that the more acidic or basic
the environmental condition around the beet cell, the more permeable the, membrane indicated by
color intensity. Pigment leakage in the solution was analyzed by using a spectrophotometer.
INTRODUCTION
Plant cells have selectively permeable membrane that allows selective substances to penetrate into
the cell. Cell membranes are consisting of lipid layer that are made up of phospholipids. (Essays,
UK.2013). These phospholipids are amphipathic in nature, which have phospholipids head and tail
respectively. Phospholipids heads are hydrophilic and tails

Investigating the Effect of Temperature on the...
Aim: In this investigation I will be measuring the effects of temperature on the membrane
permeability of beetroot. I will be measuring the amount of anthocyanin that will diffuse out of the
beetroot. The way in which I will measure the anthocyanin is to check the light absorbency of the
solution using a colorimeter. The higher the reading on colorimeter the more anthocyanin present in
the solution To find out the permeability of the beetroot membrane I will firstly cut out cylinders of
beetroot using a cork borer, I will slice them into a certain width and then place them into distilled
water at different temperatures. Using a colorimeter I will measure the anthocyanin that will diffuse
into the distilled water, the higher the reading ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Beetroot A beetroot will be used to investigate the affect of temperature on the cell membrane
permeability. I will ensure that all the beetroot pieces used have the same surface area. I can do this
by using equal sized cylinders of beetroot giving a large membrane surface for the anthocyanin to
leak out from. Also to ensure a fair test the beetroot should be from the same batch as different
beetroots may have different membranes but if they are all from the same batch the membranes
should be the same, so I should use beetroot from the same batch. Water bath There will be several
water baths at different temperatures in order to do the tests on at different temperatures. The water
baths may not provide accurate temperature e.g. (20 ºC may be 21 ºC) so I will carry out each test at
each temp on the same day to ensure a fair test. So I will be measuring the actual temperature (using
a thermometer) and the precision of the thermometer is to 1d.p which is 0.5 ºC. White tile A white
tile will be placed underneath the beetroot pieces when cutting them to give me a flat surface to cut
the beetroot on in order for me to be accurately cut the beetroot pieces at a 90 º angle. Also the white
tile will prevent any damage to surface of the beetroot and any stains to the table. Thermometer I
will use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the water in the water baths. This will ensure
the reliability of my results, as it will allow me to make sure the water

The Effect Of Temperature On Membrane Permeability
The objective and the main purpose of this experiment were to determine the effects of temperature
on membrane permeability. Physical treatment on membrane permeability with its effects on the
basis of the known chemical composition of the membrane was investigated. The major result of
this experiment was the maximum membrane permeability was determined by the maximum
absorbance value. Also the membrane becomes more permeable at higher temperature, which was
the expected result considering the fact that the protein denatured at higher temperature and
phospholipid became less stable because its shape and structure changed. As figure.1 states the
result of this experiment as temperature increases, the mean absorbance value increases as well
(Reece et al., 2014).
All of phospholipid bilayers, proteins and carbohydrates together constitute the biological
membrane. Each of these members of biological membrane has separate individual task. The task of
phospholipid bilayer is to make up the cell membrane. Phospholipids are made up of two fatty acids
and long chain of hydrogen and carbon, which are, attach to glycerol head. The glycerol molecule is
also attached to phosphate group and this is the hydrophilic part of the molecule. The tail ends on
the fatty acid chain, opposite the glycerol are hydrophobic part of the molecule. The phospholipid
releases a barrier to prevent the passage from chemical and waste products. The most important
function for phospholipid is to form a

Resting Membrane Potential Lab Report
Resting Membrane Potential The first part of the lab we did fours exercises having to do with resting
membrane potential. The purpose of part one of the MetaNueron experiment is to observe resting
membrane potential. Membrane potential is defined as the difference in electrical potential between
the interior and exterior of a cell. Resting membrane potential refers to such that the cell is at rest
and is not receiving or sending any signals. It still has a potential difference across its membrane
such that the inside of the cell is negatively charged relative the outside. We used the MetaNueron
program to do our experiments. There were four different colored lines on the computer screen. The
baseline at 0mV which was red, the Na+ potential which was blue, the K+ potentials which was
green, and the membrane potential which was yellow. The baseline is the starting point used for
comparisons of all the graphs and figures. The Na+ and K+ potentials are the membrane ... Show
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ENa was +58mV and Ek was –85.6mV. We then changed the Na+ gradient by manipulating the Na+
concentration outside from 20 mM to 120 mM. As we increased the Na concentration outside the
ENa became more positive while EK remained the same. The resting membrane potential became
more negative. ENa is 0mV when the Na+ concentration inside and out are both equivalent. The
Nernst equation allowed us to calculate the reversal potentials: Vm=58log C_1/C_2 . This equation
only accounts for the concentration gradient of a single permeable ion. The Goldman equation
allowed us to calculate the overall resting potential, which takes into account multiple ions and the
relative permeability of each: Vm=–58log (P_K 〖[K]〗_i+P_Na 〖[Na]〗_i)/(P_K 〖[K]〗
_o+P_Na 〖[Na]〗_o ). This graph can be seen below in Figure

Electrical Functions Of Plant And Animal Cells
Among the various transport systems involved in basic cellular functions in plant and animal cells,
anion channels play a key role in various physiological functions. This include cell osmoregulation,
cell signalling, plant nutrition and compartmentalization of metabolites and metal tolerance
(reference). In plants, anion channels are reported to be found in plasma membrane, tonoplast,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Plasma membrane channels have been the
best characterized till date compared to those located in other membranes.
How do they work?
Ion channels in general work like a switch mechanism namely open and close state according to the
factors that control their gating. When an ion channel is open, massive ion fluxes occur based on
their electrochemical gradient. Rapid development in understanding of ion channels came into light
when patch clamping technique was developed by Neher and Sakmann in the late 1970's. The
electrophysiological properties of plant cell membranes started being extensively studied even
before the genes encoding anion channels were identified. This is evident from the first anion
channel structure being determined in bacteria only in 2002.
At plant cellular membrane level, the highly negative membrane potential (below –100 mV) and the
intracellular anion accumulation dictate anion efflux through anion channels when they are at open
state. In cases of carboxylic anions such as malate and citrate, the pH gradient which is

Cell Membrane Permeability
Only uncharged, small, polar molecules, (such as water) and hydrophobic molecules, (such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide) and lipid–soluble molecules (such as hydrocarbons) can freely pass across
the membrane. All ions and large polar molecules (such as glucose) are not permeable to the
membrane.
Membrane structure
The plasma membrane maintains dynamic homeostasis by separating the internal metabolic events
of the cell from its external environment and controlling the movement of materials into and out of
the cell. The membrane is a double phospholipid membrane, also referred to as a phospholipid
bilayer, and has polar hydrophilic ("water loving") phosphate heads around the outside and non
polar hydrophobic ("water fearing") fatty acid tails on the inside of the membrane. Slight variations
in these structure of the fatty acids in the membrane alter the fluidity of the membrane.
Phospholipids with saturated fatty acid pack more tightly, because of the nature of their single
carbon bonds. This leads to a more rigid membrane. Unsaturated fatty acids, which have double
carbon bonds, limit packing and result in a more flexible membrane. Cholesterol molecules
distributed throughout the phospholipid bilayer provide some stability to the plasma membranes of
animal cells. At higher temperatures the cholesterol molecules allow the membrane to be firmer, at
lower temperatures they allow for flexibility.
Fig. 1
Proteins
The mosaic nature of the proteins scattered within the phospholipid

To Study the Effect of Different Brands of Mouth Rinse on...
Practical Assessment Planning AIM甜菜根細胞中含有紅色素，這是儲存在細胞液泡和液泡
膜，以防止這種洩漏出來的細胞包圍它。 Beetroot cells contain a red pigment, which is stored in
the cell vacuole and a vacuole membrane to prevent this leaking out of the cell surrounds it. 最外層
的細胞周圍也由膜，這再次可使色素細胞內。 The outer of the cell is also surrounded by a
membrane, which again helps contain the pigment inside the cell. 在這個實驗中我的目標是找出
關係的漏從甜菜紅色素細胞和表面面積。 In this experiment I aim to find out the relationship
between the leakage of red pigment from a beetroot cell and the surface area. 要做到這一點成功，
我需要改變表面面積的甜菜根細胞，然後準確地測量，如果沒有多少染料租出。 To do this
successfully I will need to alter the surface area of the beetroot cells accurately and then measure if
any and how much dye is let out. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
變數，這將被改變，被稱為自變量。 The variables, which will be altered, are known as
independent variables. 變數，這將是衡量，被稱為因變量。 The variables, which will be
measure, are known as dependant variables. 在這個實驗中的自變量是表面面積，這將有所改
變。 In this experiment the independent variable is the surface area, which will be changed. 因變量
是洩漏的染料，這將是衡量找到兩者之間的關係。 The dependant variable is the leakage of
dye, which will be measured to find a relationship between the two. 也有其他因素在本實驗中，這
將需要進行控制，以防止它成為一個不公平的測試，它們是： – There are also other variables
in this experiment, which will need to be controlled to prevent it becoming an unfair test, these are:
– 溫度 – 由於這一事實，即膜是由蛋白質，溫度是一個非常重要的因素。 Temperature – Due
to the fact that membranes are made of proteins, temperature is a very important factor. 在溫度高於
50 ° C蛋白開始被摧毀，這將增加透氣性，因此雙方的細胞壁和液泡牆。 At temperatures
above approximately 50°C proteins begin to get destroyed; this would therefore increase the
permeability of both the cell wall and the vacuole wall. 這將使我們無法分辨它是否是改變表面積
或溫度造成任何改變染料洩漏。 This would make it impossible for us to distinguish as to
whether it was the change in surface area or the temperature that caused any change in dye leakage.
由於這個原因，用水將在室溫（23 °左右），將在同一天進行，讓沒有任何差異保證金。 For
this reason the water used will be at room temperature (23° approx) and will be performed on the
same day to allow no margin for any discrepancies. 時間 – 時間是一個重要因素。 Time – Time is
an important factor. 當離開甜菜根在試管中，必須確保它們在水中整整20分鐘。 When leaving
the beetroot in the test tubes it must be ensured

Beta Vulgaris Lab Report
Turnitin Statement:
The initial percentage match was 9% similarity. However, majority of these matches were due to the
reference list. Once a filter was applied to exclude the reference list, the percentage match decreased
to 2%. The 2% similarity was in reference to general statements such as "minimising random errors
increases reliability" and "membrane permeability increases with temperature". This indicates that
the assignment is the student's original work and that the student did not plagiarise from other
sources. Therefore, due to the low percentage, the student was not required to change the structure
of the sentences.
The Effects of Different Temperature on the Membrane Permeability of Beta vulgaris
Introduction:
The cell membrane ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hence, the hypothesis was refuted. Based on a previous experiment conducted by Thimmaraju R et
al. (2002), the release of betalain increases as the temperature of the solution increases. Furthermore,
as stated earlier in the introduction, the membrane permeability will decrease if the temperature
decreases (Martin C et al, 1976). These previous experimental observations did not occur in this
investigation and could be due to the random and systematic errors that

Maglev Research Paper
Are Maglev Trains a Better Alternative for Future Transportation? By Gloria Ravuri English 8–6th
hour Mrs. Frye 24 March 2016 Gloria Ravuri Mrs. Frye English 8–6th hour 24 March 2016 Maglev
means magnetic and levitation (Liu; Long; Li 1). "Maglev is the method of propulsion that uses
magnetic levitation to propel vehicles with magnets rather than with wheel, axles, and bearings (Liu;
Long; Li 1). They are levitated a short distance away from the guideway by using magnets to create
both lift and thrust (Liu; Long; Li 1). They don't have friction means that acceleration and
deceleration that can exceed that of wheeled transports and are protected from weather (Liu; Long;
Li 1). "Maglev promises to be a major mode of transport ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
It can reach high speeds and operate quickly because its bullet shaped design takes down on some
air resistance (force of air pushing against the train) (Stiefel, How a maglev works). Instead of it
having a flat design where air resistance is higher, the bullet design, which isn't flat, lets the train
have a lower air resistance, its bullet design, making it go faster than normal trains. It is built with
lightweight materials like fiberglass and aluminum (not steel), and it is not limited by friction from
the wheels on the track which would slow down normal trains. This gives you a smoother ride
(Stiefel, How a maglev works; Britcher 55). There is almost no sound from the train because it has
about a 1 in. gap and doesn't touch the track (Quain 88). It can reduce congested roads and highways
and could cut a 4 hour trip to a 1 hour trip (Amtrak vs. Maglev) (Stiefel, Mighty Maglev). "That's
better than air travel. You don't have to deal with busy airports." says John Harding, physicist at the
Federal Railroad Administration in Washington D.C. (Stiefel, Mighty Maglev). There is a constant
speed on a maglev train whether going uphill or downhill (Britcher

The Blood Brain Barrier
The Blood Brain Barrier
The central nervous system is comprised of many elements that help maintain a highly regulated
environment for very specialized functions, such as communication throughout the entire body via
nerve pathways (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). This compartmentalization of the nervous system
was first introduced by Paul Ehrlich and Edwin E. Goldman in the 1880's, where after injecting a
coloured dye into the circulatory system, the brain and spinal cord were found to be devoid of any
staining, a phenomenon also observed when the brain was stained and the rest of the organs were
not (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). In addition, neurotoxins and electron dense materials injected
into the bloodstream were not permitted entry into the central nervous system, instead accumulating
outside of what is now known as the blood brain barrier (BBB) (Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009).
The BBB is not only a physical barrier, but also a physiological barrier separating the brain and the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the blood circulating through the rest of the body (Braniste et al.,
2014; Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009). This barrier is a result of the presence of endothelial cells that
line the microvascular structures in the brain as well as astrocytes, pericytes, neurons, and an
extracellular matrix, all of which induce a physiology that separates the brain from blood (Braniste
et al., 2014; Engelhardt & Sorokin, 2009; Persidsky, 2013). Due to the different components, the
BBB

Effect of Temperature on Permeability of Cell Membrane
To investigate the effect of variation in temperature on the permeability of cell membranes using
fresh beetroot
Aims
In this investigation, you will subject fresh, washed beetroot discs to different temperatures to
investigate the effect of temperature on the permeability of the plasma membrane.
Overview
The beetroot discs will be placed in distilled water at different temperatures. You will compare the
intensity of the beetroot pigment that has leaked out from the cells subjectively and possibly
objectively using a colorimeter. You can relate the findings to the effect of different temperatures on
the permeability of cell membranes in beetroot (as well as in other organisms).
Features of experimental design
The investigation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Assemble the bench mat, tripod, gauze, water bath and Bunsen burner. Do not light the Bunsen
burner yet.
6. Add 5.0 cm3 of distilled water from a beaker to each of the seven test tubes E25 to E75 and C25.
Put all seven test tubes into the water bath.
7. Check the temperature of the water in the water bath. Use the Bunsen burner to gently warm its
towards 25 °C. Stop heating just below that temperature at about 23 °C since more heat will be
conducted from the hot glass of the beaker. Measure the temperature in the water in the test tube
labelled E25. When it is the same as that of the water bath, record it in the table.
8. Add three beetroot discs to E25. Start the stop clock. After sixty seconds, use a test tube holder to
remove the test tube. Put the bung into it. Shake it ten times over 30 cm. Pour the liquid into the
receiving test tube (RT)and the discs into the waste beaker. Then pour the liquid back into E25 and
put it into the test tube rack for later examination.
9. Carry out the same procedure with the control tube C25.

10. Carry out the same procedure for the other temperatures. Use the Bunsen burner to raise the
temperature towards 35(C and carry out the same procedure with 3 more discs, as at 25(C. In the
same way, subject the beetroot discs in the various experimental tubes to sixty seconds at each of
45(C, 55(C, 65(C and 75(C. Use a paper towel for insulation or a

Beta Vulgaris Lab Report
The effect of ethanol concentration on the membrane permeability of Beta Vulgaris
Introduction
Characterised by their phospholipid bilayer, membranes are the structures of cells that regulate the
entry and exit of materials to ensure that it's internal and external environment vary (Lecornu &
Diercks, 2013). The ease with which materials penetrate this membrane refers to its permeability,
which can alter depending on the substance introduced (Patra et al, 2006). Hence, cell membranes
are selectively permeable, with small and uncharged molecules penetrating with most ease (Lecornu
& Diercks, 2013).
Ethanol is a non–polar and uncharged alcohol, when at high concentrations, will destroy the lipid
bilayer barrier of membranes and increase ion ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If a larger range of ethanol concentrations were trialled than Kalant's (1971) claim could be tested
for accuracy, and a trend could be determined to reliably support or reject the hypothesis. Moreover,
the ethanol concentrations used differed significantly, thus it was difficult to identify random errors
and establish an accurate trend from which the data could be analysed. Many aspects also limited
the scientific scrutiny of the results. For example, the B. Vulgaris cubes were rinsed and immersed
in distilled water before the experiment to remove surface betalain. Depending on the time periods
these occurred, the water could have hydrated and increased the membrane permeability of the
cubes to varying degrees (Disalvo et al, 2008). Consequently, these would skew the results, as they
can no longer be attributed to the ethanol concentration. Alternatively, depending on how well the
cubes were rinsed, some surface betalain may have adhered and further coloured the solution, such
as that for Treatment 1. Additionally, the time in which the B. Vulgaris was immersed in the
treatments may have not been long enough for the betalain to leach completely in Treatment 2, but
enough for Treatment 1 to leach it's maximum betalain, resulting in its higher membrane
permeability. Moreover, only the spectrophotometer was used to indicate membrane permeability,
which could have limited the data, as if the values were incorrect due to improper calibration of the
machine, no other data was available to analyse and compare permeability. The treatment solutions
were also not personally prepared and in bulk, hence, the vials may have been incorrectly labelled,
resulting in the unexpected results in Figure

Temperature Change and Its Impact on Cell Permeability
The cell membrane plays multiple important roles regarding the overall function of the cell such as
separating the intracellular parts of the cell from the extracellular environment. One of the main
functions of the cell membrane is to regulate the transport of molecules in and out of the cell
(Maderin 2009). The cell membrane itself is actually made up of a lipid bilayer which is broken
down even more to fatty acid chains, proteins, and cholesterol. The lipids of the bilayer are
aphipathic, which means that they have hydrophilic polar heads pointing out and the hydrophobic
portion forming the core (Gwen 2001). Within the bilayer, proteins are embedded. These proteins
may sometimes pass through the bilayer, or they may be inserted at the cytoplasmic or exterior face.
The fluid characteristics of the cell membrane come from this lipid bilayer. The phospholipid bilayer
also forms sacks within the plant cell. One surrounds the whole cell, which creates the cell
membrane, while another sack surrounds the vacuole (Howard 2003). The special membrane that
surrounds the vacuole is known as the tonoplast membrane (Peter 2004). Within the vacuole is a
molecule known as betacaynin. Betacyanin is any one type of a group of pigments. It is a nitrogen
containing glycosylated compound that is responsible for the red color in the beta vulgaris or
beetroot (Encyclopedia 2004).The Betacyanin is stored within the vacuole of the plant cell. At
normal temperatures the betacyanin remains within

Turnitin Statement On Beta Vulgaris
Turnitin statement
The Turnitin results showed that there was a percentage match of 26% within the document.
However, most of these are referring to common words or phrases that would have to be used in
other papers to discuss the experiment and findings that occurred. There wasn't any changes needed
as the only other things Turnitin highlighted were parts that had been referenced or were part of the
reference itself and therefore the percentage matching should have been lower than the one
displayed.
How the concentration of ethanol affects the membrane permeability of Beta vulgaris
Introduction
Beta vulgaris (B. Vulgaris) or more commonly known as a beet, gets its famous red colour from
betalain molecules, which are stored in the vacuole ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gurtovenko, A. A. & Anwar, J., 2009. Interaction of Ethanol with Biological Membranes: The
Formation of Nonbilayer Structures within the Membrane Interior and their Significance. The
Journal of Physical Chemistry, 113(7), pp. 1983–1992.
Hinz, U., 2016. Why is a Beetroot Red?. [Online]
Available at: http://www.saps.org.uk/saps–associates/browse–q–and–a/166–q–a–a–why–is–a–
beetroot–red
[Accessed 26 March 2018].
Kumar, S. N. A., Ritesh, S. K., Sharmila, G. & Muthukumaran, C., 2017. Extraction optimization
and characterization of water soluble red purple pigment from floral bracts of Bougainvillea glabra.
Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 10(2), p. 2150.
Patra, M, Salonen, E, Terama, E, Vattulainen, I, Faller, R, Lee, BW, Holopainen, J and Karttunen,
M., 2006. Under the Influence of Alcohol: The Effect of Ethanol and Methanol on Lipid Bilayers.
Biophysical Journal, 90(4), pp. 1121–1135.
Yang, N. J. & Hinner, M. J., 2015. Getting Across the Cell Membrane: An Overview for Small
Molecules, Peptides, and Proteins. In: A. Gautier & M. Hinner, eds. Site–Specific Protein Laveling
Methods in Molecular Biology. New York: Humana Press, pp. 29–53, viewed 28 March 2018, (––
removed HTML

Integration Of Ann Based Proxy Model
Integration of ANN based Proxy model in EnKF Framework After development of an accurate
proxy model based on ANN, the next task is to combine it with existing EnKF framework for
assisted history matching. Permeability realizations are represented in terms of eigenvalues and
corresponding eigen functions along with random variables using KL expansion as described in
section 2.2. Once the eigenvalues and their corresponding eigen functions are determined after
truncating terms in KL expansion, a realization can be generated with a certain number of values ξ_i
from the standard Gaussian distribution N(0,1) using Eqn. (13). Each vector of random variable
represents a permeability realization. These random variable vectors are used as input parameters for
development of the proxy models. General workflow for development of the proxy models has been
shown in Fig.4. A detailed explanation for proxy model generation will be provided in further
section using a real field case study of SAGD reservoir. The proxy models are then used in forecast
step of EnKF. EnKF workflow starts from construction of a state vector shown in Eqn. (2). In KL–
ANN–EnKF approach, state vector consists of random variables as model parameters representing
the permeability field along with production parameters. In forecast step, reservoir simulator is
replaced by the proposed ANN proxy model and production parameters are estimated considering
random variables as input parameters. Output spread is

Aquaporin-2
The aquaporin water channel was only identified recently. Review how it was discovered, its
structures and its role in the disease diabetes insipidus.
Aquaporins are essential plasma membrane proteins that form pores in the membranes of biological
cells, allowing for the transportation of water across the plasma membrane due to osmotic gradients.
These water channels are of great significance in monitoring the water contents of cells and are
widely dispersed in all kingdoms of life – plants, mammals and bacteria; as well as being associated
with the kidneys, lungs and skeletal muscle. With that having been said, there are approximately
over ten various aquaporin water channels located within the human body, as well as the discovery
that the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, as discussed above, mutations in aquaporins can also lead to other medical problems such
as diabetes insipidus, which can be treated through the use of modified antidiuretic hormone
medications. The medications are however dependent on the overall health and the extent of the
disease. (Deepika et al. 2015) With that having been said, aquaporins are more so beneficial to those
individuals who are treated with mutated aquaporins for their medical problem as they would be
able to live a relatively normal lifestyle and not be limited to perform everyday

The Effect Of The Concentration Of Ethanol On The Membrane...
Effect of the concentration of ethanol on the membrane permeability using Beta vulgaris
Introduction (215)
Cell membrane is a selective boundary composed of a unique phospholipid bi–layer structure
consisting of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. This structure regulates the import and export to
maintain homeostasis condition inside the cell. (Knox et al., 2014) The plasma membrane is referred
as a fluid mosaic which also has selective permeability. The permeability of the membrane can be
varied depending on the external conditions. (Mitchel, 2015)
The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect of ethanol on the membrane permeability
using Beta vulgaris. Beta vulgaris contains red pigments called betalain sequestered in vacuoles. The
cell membrane is generally impermeable to betalain as this pigment is relatively large and cannot
pass through the membrane by diffusion. (123HelpMe.com, 2015) However, by increasing the
permeability of the cell membrane, betalain can leach out of the cell and colour the liquid red. The
colour intensity of the solution due to leakage of betalain is proportional to the membrane
permeability. To quantify the colour intensity, the light absorbance of the solutions containing a Beta
vulgaris cube were measured by a spectrophotometer. These measurements were used to analyse the
membrane permeability. (Flinders University, 2015)
According to another study, plasma membranes becomes more fluid and permeable when exposed to
a higher

Solubility Lab Report
Pharmaceutical scientists have to account for multiple properties when developing new drugs, and
they need to understand what could affect different patients when developing these drugs. Solubility
is one of these properties, and it is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance to dissolve in a
solid, liquid or gaseous solvent, and it is critical to absorption into the body. In drug discovery over
the years, the number of insoluble drug candidates has increased recently, with almost 70% of new
drug candidates showing poor water solubility.
The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the solvent used, as well as on temperature
and pressure. Forms of dosages, like tablets, capsules, and solutions, consisting of the drug plus ...
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The USP/NF generally expresses the solubility in terms of the volume of solvent required to
dissolve 1 gram of the drug at a specified temperature. There is also the Biopharmaceuticals
Classification System (BCS), which is a scientific classification of a drug substance based on its
aqueous solubility and intestinal permeability that correlates in vitro dissolution and in vivo
bioavailability of drug products. BCS takes into account two major factors: solubility and
permeability, which control the rate and extent of drug absorption from solid dosage forms, and its
bioavailability. A drug is considered highly soluble when the highest strength is soluble in 250 ml
(this volume is typical study protocols) or less of aqueous media over the pH range of 1.0–7.5;
otherwise the drug substance is considered poorly

The Effect of Temperature on the Permeability of Beetroot...
The Effect of Temperature on the Permeability of Beetroot Membrane
Analysis
The graph shows the colorimeter readings increase as the temperature increases, they increase by the
most at higher temperatures. This is shown by a smooth curve.
This means that the beetroot samples release more dye at higher temperatures. This is because
higher temperatures cause the membrane structure to break down.
The membrane structure:
Membranes have two layers of molecules called phospolipids to make up their structure.
Phospholipis consist of a glycerol molecule plus two molecules of fatty and a phosphate group, this
looks like a head with two legs, their head is attracted to water, this means ... Show more content on
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Intrinsic proteins occur across the whole width if the protein allowing the intake of substances into
the cell. Extrinsic proteins occur only in the outer or inner phospholipid bi–layer, but not through
both. These proteins are usually receptors.
Intrinsic channel proteins allow water soluble molecules to pass through it by forming a tiny gap in
itself, this is large enough for the substances.
Intrinsic carrier proteins carry water–soluble molecules through the membrane, this method is called
Â'Active TransportÂ'
Extrinsic proteins recognise and bind on specific molecules, eg. hormones. Membranes can also be
embedded in the inner membrane
The reason why the membrane structure breaks down at higher temperatures is because the proteins
are not very stable and break down with heat, called denaturing. An enzyme denatures because the
heat changes the shape of the active site o the substrate can not fit into it. Enzymes are always
denaturing, but at higher temperatures this occurs more rapidly. But at higher temperatures there are
more collisions between the substrate and the active site so this would increase the reactivity, so a

good balance must be found. The optimum temperature is about 43ËšC, this is called the optimum
temperature. As the proteins start to break down, there is no longer a

The Change Of Wor Vs. Dimensionless Time
As Yortsos et al. (1999) have shown in their work, the change of WOR vs. dimensionless time is
governed by the time regime. He distinguished four such time regimes: Early time, before water
breaks through the layers of a reservoir (Fig. 1, b) in which WOR remains almost constant; The
stage immediately following water breakthrough, when water saturation near the producer is low
(Fig. 1, c). This regime can be analysed using the 1D displacement equation for intermediate values
of water saturation (Eq. 8) which suggests that at intermediate values of water saturation at the
producer,S_w^*≤0.5, the WOR–time relationship is described with a linear function of logW vs.
logt with slope 1. Intermediate time between (ii) and (iv), reflecting ... Show more content on
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14)
Figure 1: Four representative stages of a linear waterflood at interstitial water saturation. Injection of
water causes oil to be displaced from the reservoir resulting in a water saturation gradient
(Willhite,1986)
Figure 2: Areal X–ray shadowgraphs of flood progress in scaled five–spot patterns showing areal
sweep efficiencies of two model floods for two mobility ratios (Willhite,1986)
Fig. 3 shows how WOR varies over time for one of the numerical wells created in a numerical
simulation model for the Wytch Farm Field, UK.
Figure 3: Illustration of a typical WOR vs. dimensionless time dependence showing the four distinct
time regimes Figure 4: A plot of log[(1+W)2/(Wt)] vs. log W showing that in the case of large M,
the cross–plot conditions described by Eq. 8 apply over a wide range of WOR (b=2.0) (Yortsos et
al., 1999)
Using diagnostic plots of log[(1+W)2/(Wt)] vs. logW Yortsos et al. (1999) showed numerically that
for large water oil viscosity ratio and small Corey exponent to oil, the flood front water saturation is
relatively low. As a result the behavior immediately following breakthrough described by Eq. 8 is
valid over a wide range of WOR, in which case the ratio [(1+W)2/(Wt)] remains approximately
constant for an extensive range of WOR. Conversely, for small viscosity ratios, the late time
behavior becomes dominant at much lower values of WOR. His studies were supported by
numerical

Biology Beetroot Lab Report
Investigating Effects of duration of heating on permeability of beetroot cell membrane
Introduction: Cell membranes contain many different types of molecules which have different roles
in the overall structure of the membrane. Phospholipids form a bilayer, which is the basic structure
of the membrane. Their non–polar tails form a barrier to most water soluble substances. Membrane
proteins serves as channels for transport of metabolites, some act as enzymes or carriers, while some
are receptors. Lastly carbohydrate molecules of the membrane are relatively short–chain
polysaccharides, which has multiple functions, for example, cell–cell recognition and acting as
receptor sites for chemical signals.
The plasma membrane is a permeable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus it forms holes, disrupting the membrane of the beetroot core which essentially prevents the
betacyanin pigment from leaving the cell. Also, when exposed under heat, the cholesterol,
glycolipids and phospholipids expand, putting pressure on the membrane from inside. The lipid part
of the membrane will become liquid, making it open to leakage. The proteins in the membrane will
denature, increasing the permeability in the surface. The combination of vibrating molecules and a
denaturing membrane would disrupt the organized structure of the membrane. And eventually with a
disrupted membrane, betacyanin pigment in the innermost compartment will leak out.
When the beetroot sample is heated for a longer period of time, it is exposed to the vigorous and
frequent vibrating molecules for a longer duration. This further disrupts the cell membranes making
them more fragile, thus more pigment will leak out into the external solution. With more leakage of
the betacyanin pigment, the % transmittance should be lower, indicating that the % of light that is
able to pass through the beetroot solution should be less as duration heated increases.
(Source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what–is–membrane–permeability.htm)
Based on previous knowledge, research and the above prediction, I would expect to get results
similar to:
The data collected of % transmittance can then be used as an indication of changes in membrane
permeability of

Investigating the Effect of Temperature on the...
Investigating the Effect of Temperature on the Permeability of Membranes
The permeability of membranes can be altered in several ways. From previous preliminary work I
know that reagents, for example detergents and alcohol alter the arrangement of the phospholipids in
the membrane allowing substances to leak out of the cell. Temperature also affects the membrane.
As membranes relay on protein molecules to allow molecules to enter and leave the cell through
facilitated diffusion the temperature must not exceed the approximate temperature of 50°C as at
roughly this temperature proteins are denatured. This is due to an increase in kinetic energy making
atoms in the protein to vibrate more; this breaks hydrogen and ionic bonds. These proteins ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will be used, as it will provide me with a set of figures that a mean and standard deviation can
be taken from in order to produce more accurate results.
11.Samples to set the colorimeter, a sample of clear liquid, water and a liquid containing a deep
colour will be needed to set the scale of the colorimeter, the water will have a high transmission and
set it to 100% and the deep colour will give a low transmission and set it to zero (0%)
12.Syringe, to measure out volumes of water, this will be used as it provides a more accurate
measurement than a beaker.
13.Test tube rack, to store the samples of beetroot when they are taken from the water baths to
ensure nothing is spilled.
14.Tongs, to remove the test tubes from the water baths to minimise the risk of burns from hot
water.
Risk Assessment
Care will need to be taken when cutting lengths of beetroot with a scalpel. Beetroot should be cut in
a direction away from the body to minimise the risk of cutting yourself. A cutting mat should be
used as not to damage surfaces underneath by cutting or stained by any of the leaked pigment as a
result of cutting the beetroot. Plastic gloves and apron may be used to avoid the staining of hands
and clothes with beetroot pigment. Care will also need to be taken when placing and removing
samples of beetroot in hot water, tongs should be used to avoid burns.

Diagram
Method
Firstly the equipment needed should be gathered in order to carry out the

Essay On Familial Hypomagnesaemia
Familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC) is a disease of renal
tubular disorder. The symptoms of FHHNC generally present in children or before adolescence.
Mutations of CLDN16 or CLDN19 is the main reason of this infrequent disease. Claudin–16 is
encoded by CLDN–16 and CLDN19 encode the claudin–19. (1) Michelis et al. was the first person
to find this disease, he reported that the feathers are excessive magnesium and calcium losses with
urinary, bilateral nephrocalcinosis and progressive chronic renal failure. (11) In this essay, I will
discuss the role of tight junction proteins in familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and
nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC).
Magnesium is the fourth most cation in the body, its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Felix Claverie–Martin, 2015, Familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis:
clinical and molecular characteristics, Clinical Kidney Journal.
2. R Swaminathan, 2003, Magnesium Metabolism and its Disorders, The Clinical Biochemist
Reviews
3. Rodríguez–Soriano J, Vallo A, García–Fuentes M. 1987. Hypomagnesaemia of hereditary renal
origin. Pediatr Nephrol.
4. Andrea Hartsock and W.James Nelson, 2008, Adherens and Tight junctions: Structure, Function
and Connections to the Actin Cytoskeleton, Biochim Biophys Acta.
5. Kiuchi–Saishin Y, Gotoh S, Furuse M, Takasuga A, Tano Y, Tsukita S. Differential expression
patterns of claudins, tight junction membrane proteins, in mouse nephron segments.
6. Konrad M, Schaller A, Seelow D, et al. Mutations in the Tight–Junction Gene Claudin 19
(CLDN19) Are Associated with Renal Magnesium Wasting, Renal Failure, and Severe Ocular
Involvement. American Journal of Human Genetics. 2006;79(5):949–957.
7. Hou J, Paul DL, Goodenough DA. 2005Paracellin–1 and the modulation of ion selectivity of tight
junctions. J Cell Sci.
8. Hou J, Renigunta A, Konrad M, et al. 2008. Claudin–16 and claudin–19 interact and form a
cation–selective tight junction complex. J Clin

Electrochemical Gradient
#1) What is an electrochemical gradient, and why is it so important when discussing the movement
of ions across cell membranes? The establishment of electrochemical gradient is one of the driving
forces for ion movement across the cell membrane. Cells are usually negative and surrounded by
positively charged extracellular fluids. All transport processes across cells impact the chemical
gradients. There are two primary transport processes that affect electrical gradients, electroneutral
carriers and electrogenic carries. Electroneutral carries transport uncharged molecules or exchange
an equal number of particles with the same charge across the membrane, ultimately not changing the
overall elecrtochemical gradient. Electrogenic carriers result ... Show more content on
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Explain this process and how it establishes the conditions for intestinal water absorption. The
esophagus is responsible for establishing the conditions of water take up as it goes through the
gastrointestinal tract. This is achieved by having low water permeability and high salt transport.
Because the esophagus absorbs ions all while not taking up the available water, it lowers the
seawaters osmotic pressure. This low salinity high water solution then travels to the intestines where
it is able to be absorbed due to the altered osmotic pressure of the seawater. #3) Explain the process
by which fish produce calcium carbonate precipitates. Why does calcium carbonate precipitation
help intestinal water absorption? After passing through the esophagus, which absorbs much of the
salt ions in the swallowed saltwater, and the gut the luminal fluid is isosmotic with the plasma. The
intestines continue to absorb salt (sodium through chloride co–transport proteins and the chloride
through the sodium co transport proteins and anion exchange protinis) which is followed by an
uptake of water. More chloride is absorbed than sodium which creates an electrogradient in the cell
(the cell being more positive and the plasma more negative). The anion exchanger intakes chloride
all while excreting HCO3– into the intestinal lumen. The intestinal fluid is highly alkaline, high in
HcO3– and high in calcium (from the environment), this allows for CaCo3 to be precipitated in the

The Permeability Of Membrane Permeability
Ability of cell membrane transport of membrane permeability， diffusion ，osmosis and membrane
voltages
Introduction
Cell membranes are boundaries of the cell, it controls all the interaction between cells as well as
passage transport of the material we normally describe as membrane transport. Membrane transport
are very essential for all living things, however not all substance can transport in and out of
membranes and different ions can pass through membranes in different ways.
Membrane permeability is very important as to maintain the cell in a stable condition as we can also
describe as remain our cell a more homeostatic environment by control which substances could can
go through cells. Membranes are essential for control the concentration of particular ion, and
establish the concentration requires. We can observe those mechanisms of cell membrane from a
considerable ATP synthesis and solute transport through the plasma membranes. Gradients which
cause those ions to move cross the membranes are potential of cell .when a separation of charge
occurred an electrical potential occurred results with voltages can be measured in the cell.
Osmosis is the one of important transport for living cells.it allows water from one side to another.
The direction of osmosis are usually from high concentration of water to lower concentration. This
is because when the membrane has a high level on one side of membranes it could results as a
pressure, which is known as osmotic pressure.

The Membrane Of A Eukaryotic Cell
A eukaryotic cell not only has a plasma membrane as its external boundary, but it also has a variety
of membranes that divide its interior into discrete partitions, separating processes and cell
mechanisms (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2012). The complex and varied design
of the phospholipid bilayer allows the membrane to serve the variety of specific functions required
by different types of cells. Moreover, one of the most significant properties of membranes is
selective permeability; permitting the passage and movement of ions and molecules to pass freely
through the membrane, but excludes others from doing so (Ek–Vitorin and Burt, 2013). One type of
membrane–bound vacuole is found in plant cells, the tonoplast is quite large and contains water
(Dee, 2000). Within Beta vulgaris cells, the membrane bound vacuole also contains a red, water
soluble pigment, known as betacyanin, that provides the beetroot with its characteristic colour
(Nottingham, 2004). As the pigment is water soluble, it remains in the vacuole of the cell, however
if the integrity of the membrane is disrupted (through direct chemical damage, channel damage,
injury via viruses, etc.) the contents of the vacuole will diffuse out into the surrounding environment
(Andrews, Almeida and Corrotte, 2014). Through practical analysis, the effects of various chemicals
on membrane permeability in B.vulgaris was observed through the utilization of various
concentrations of ethanol – 0%, 35% and 70%

Melittin Lab Report
The above structure is melittin, which, as discussed earlier, has lytic properties when it encounters
several types of membranes. Experiments in selectivity have been done with two different analogues
of melittin that were produced, one in which the leucine at position 13 was replaced by alanine, and
one in which the 6th and 13th leucine residues were replaced by alanine. The first analog exhibited
10–20% of the hemolytic activity and similar antimicrobial activity when compared to melittin,
while the second analog showed 1–2% of the hemolytic activity and similar microbial activity.
These results indicate that the leucine zwitter–motif is responsible for the hemolytic, but not the
antimicrobial, activity of melittin. (Asthana, p.2)
Additional ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Peptides of the innate immune system have a broad range of microbicidal activities and can affect
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria as well as mycobacteria, spirochetes, fungi, and some
enveloped bacteria. The same can be said of magainin–2 and melittin.(Mark, 601)
Despite the wide–range of microbes affected by the innate immune system, the activity of peptides
associated with the immune response seem to be highly sequence specific. The peptides specifically
target areas of the membrane with high curvature. (Mark, 601)
This examination of peptides found in the innate immune system, when combined with the research
done involving analogs of melittin, lends some hope that if pathogenic cell membranes can be
mapped, then melittin can be altered in such a way as to target these cells. When compared to the
magainin–2 "all or nothing" response, melittin's graded response provides a window where certain
concentrations that could be toxic to target cells are still safe for host cells. This is why there is
much research currently being done on melittin and its ability to target the HIV

Permeability Of Red Blood Cells
All living organisms are composed of cells. Cells maintain their structure due to their cell
membrane. These membranes are selectively permeable which means that the cell membrane
regulates the type and the amount of substances that are able to enter the cell (Reece et al., 2014).
The cell membrane is a very complex structure that allows the cell to perform the basic functions
that are necessary for life.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable because of its structure. Cell membranes are composed
of a phospholipid bilayer. These lipids are amphipathic meaning that they contain both a hydrophilic
(attracted to water) and hydrophobic (repelled by water) region. The cell membrane maintains its
structure by orienting itself so the hydrophilic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Before conducting the experiment, the predicted results were methanol would lyse first, followed by
ethanol, ethylene glycerol, ammonium chloride, and ammonium acetate. Glucose, sucrose, sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, glycine, and sodium acetate were not predicted to lyse at all. Sodium
acetate, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride are all extremely polar molecules. As a result they
did not travel through the cell membrane, and no lysing occurred. This further supports the
spectrophotometry and microscopy experiments where sodium chloride was used as a control.
Sucrose and glucose are also extremely large polar sugar molecules, and as a result did not lyse the
cell. Methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycerol, and glycerol are all alcohols; they are relatively small and
nonpolar. They were incredibly permeable to the cell membrane, and their rate of permeability was
based on their molecular weight. Methanol had the smallest molecular weight and lysed the red
blood cells fasted. Ethanol was the next smallest, followed by ethylene glycerol, and glycerol.
Ammonium acetate and ammonium chloride both lysed faster than glycerol because in an aqueous
solution the ammonium loses a hydrogen to become ammonia, which causes the molecule to no
longer be polar. As a result, the molecule is able to travel through the cell

Cell Membrane Potential Lab Report
Increase in K+ ions concentration causes increase in membrane potential in crayfish muscle cell
Abstract: The membrane potential of a cell is affected by ions and depends on the electrochemical
gradient and the concentration gradient (Sandstorm et al, 2018). There are multiple ions that affects
the membrane potential including K+, Na+ and Cl– but K+ and Na+ affect the membrane potential
the most. In this experiment, we look at how K+ affects the membrane potential by changing K+
concentration levels. A similar experiment was done years ago by Hodgkin and other researchers;
we will be reproducing the results. We first used a model cell to get theoretical values and then we
used the muscle cell of a crayfish to conduct our experiment. We dissected ... Show more content on
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The electrical gradient also wants to reach equilibrium in charges so that there is less differences in
charge between the inside and the outside of the cell and the two charges cancel each other out. The
equilibrium potential depends on both forces, the concentration and electrical gradient of the ions.
(Sandstrom et al, 2018). The Nernst equation is used to find the voltage at which one ion reaches its
equilibrium potential and the Goldman equation is used to find the membrane potential when there
more than one ion that affects it and have different permeability.
When the membrane potential of a cell is at equilibrium, or at "rest", there is not net movement of
ions across the cell membrane. At rest the equilibrium potential of a muscle cell is between –70 mV
and –90 mV due to the high concentration of K+ inside the cell. The inside of the cell is very
negative compare to the outside and when the cell depolarizes, it becomes more positive. A previous
research done by P. Fatt and B. Katz show that an increase in K+ concentration outside the cell
causes the most change in resting potential (Fatt, P et al,

Effect of Detergent Concentration on Membrane Permeability...
Aim: To investigate how effect of Detergent Concentration (cont.) has on Membrane permeability of
Beetroot cells.
Hypothesis: I predict that as detergent concentration increases, the solution will become less clear,
plus mass increases. The increases in mass will indicate that the water potential of the Beetroot cell
is lower than that of the surrounding sucrose solution. The Beetroot discs will become flaccid and
decrease in mass if the water potential of the surrounding solution is lower than the water potential
inside the beetroot cell. I predict that Osmosis will not occur (at 0% cont.) if the water potential of
the sucrose solution (detergent) and the water potential of the cell's cytoplasm are equal. I also
predict that an increase ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This has been shown by a steady increase in Anthon cyanine leaked out of plant cells as the
concentration and temperature increases.
The purpose of a cell membrane is to control the transport of substances moving into and out of a
cell. The membrane is an extremely thin layer (8 to 10 nanometers (nm)) thick, which is partially
permeable. It consists mostly of lipids and proteins. The lipids found in cell membranes belong to a
class known as triglycerides, so called because they have one molecule of glycerol chemically
linked to three molecules of fatty acids. The majority belong to one subgroup of triglycerides known
as phospholipids.
The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer. The hydrophobic tails of the detergent
molecules are taken up by this bilayer. The detergent's hydrophilic heads will then repel (Micelle, an
electrically charge particle built up from polymer molecules or ions and occurring in certain
colloidal electrolytic solutions like soaps and detergents) the individual phospholipids and this will
mean they are 'disrupted'. The detergent will then enter the cell, and the tonoplast surrounding the
membrane. Therefore, the higher concentration of detergent, the more detergent molecules, and this
means there is more chance of the extra detergent molecules being taken up by the cell membranes.
If more detergent is taken up by the cell membranes, more

Essay about Permeability of Beetroot Cell Membranes
Permeability of Beetroot Cell Membranes
An experiment to investigate how temperature affects the
Permeability of beetroot cell membranes
Interpretation of Results:
0°C
20°C
30°C
40°C
55°C
0.24
0.28
0.75
0.79
0.22
0.26
0.35
0.41
0.81
From 0°C to 30°C there is a gradual increase of absorbency which shows that as the temperature
increases it is denaturing the cell wall and cell membrane and allowing the beetroot pigment to leek
out into the distilled water.
As soon as the sample of beetroot is placed into the distilled water diffusion occurs naturally, which
is the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration (beetroot sample) to a region
of low concentration (distilled water).
From ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Within my data which I collected I have found one anomaly. The anomaly is taken from my second
row of results (highlighted in red).

At the temperature 40°C, the first result I collected from this temperature was 0.75 arbitrary units
and from the re–test results at the same temperature I got 0.41 arbitrary units. This is a difference of
0.34 arbitrary units.
This piece of data is not what I would have expected due to the first set of results, although the data
at 55°C on the first and second tests are relatively the same.
Evaluation of Practical Work:
The anomaly which I have identified at 40°C is 0.41 arbitrary units this could be due to the size of
the sample of beetroot used, if the sample was smaller than the other samples it was have less
pigment which would suggested why the result is lower than expected. Another suggestion for why
the result is lower than expected could be due to the loss of pigment in the preparation process, or
from where the sample was taken from on the beetroot.
If the sample was taken from the centre of the beetroot the sample may have had more pigment
contained within the cells, but if the sample was taken from closer to the surface of the beetroot it

Hypotonic Isotonic And Hypertonic Solutions
Discussion for Red Blood Cells in Hypotonic, Isotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions
The ability of a solution to make water move outside and into a cell via osmosis is known as
tonicity. The osmolarity is the total concentration of all the solutes that are present in a solution and
is related to the tonicity. To compare the osmolarity of a cell and the extracellular fluid around it the
terms hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic are used. If the extracellular fluid has a lower
concentration of solute compared to the fluid inside the cell, it will be a hypotonic solution and the
net flow of water will be inside the cell. If the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of solute
compared to the fluid in the cell this will be a hypertonic solution and the net flow of water would
be outside of the cell. In an isotonic solution, the concentration outside inside the cell reaches
equilibrium and there is no net movement of water (Reece et al. 2014). In the case of this
experiment, if a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution as seen above in the figure 7a, water will
leave the cell to move down its own concentration, and the cell shrinks. In the isotonic solution as
seen above in figure 7b, the concentration of solute and water are equal so there is no net movement
in the flow of water outside or inside the cell, so the shape of the cell does not change. Finally, in the
hypotonic solution in figure 7c, the net movement of the water is inside the cells which makes the
cells swell

Beta Vulgaris Research Paper
Title The effect of temperature on Beta vulgaris plasma membrane permeability. Introduction
Plasma membranes are the physical barrier of cells, which are selectively permeable to allow the
passage of materials such as nutrients, gasses and waste products (Flinders University, 2015). The
steroid cholesterol contained in the plasma membrane increases the membrane fluidity at higher
temperatures (Blicher et al., 2009). Beta vulgaris contains a pigment called betalain, which leaches
out of the tissue when there is an increase in membrane permeability, this causes the solution B.
vulgaris is in to turn red (Flinders University, 2015). The aim of this investigation was to determine
the effect of temperature on Beta vulgaris plasma membrane permeability. ... Show more content on
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vulgaris were prepared by repeatedly rinsing in distilled water to remove surface betalain (Flinders,
2015). A control group and two treatments were taken, the control was at room temperature (25
degrees Celsius), and the treatments were at 50 degrees Celsius and 80 degrees Celsius. Cubes of B.
vulgaris were placed into cuvettes with three ml of distilled water, the treatments were started five
minutes apart to ensure each treatment was recorded at the correct time. The light absorbency of
each treatment was then recorded using a spectrophotometer set at 540nm, the absorbency for each
treatment was checked after 0 minutes, 15 minutes and, 30 minutes in the water baths. Before
measuring the light absorbency of each treatment a cuvette with 3 millimetres of distilled water was
placed in a spectrophotometer to set it to zero. The absorbency in the solution was measured in
arbitrary units (AU), the higher the light absorbency, the higher the plasma membrane permeability.
Each treatment was gently swirled before being placed into the spectrophotometer to disperse the
colour. Each treatment had three replicates to guarantee an accurate average could be recorded. The
results were then collated into tables and

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