Cardio regulatory mechanism
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Cardiac output (The Guyton and Hall Physiology)
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute. It is calculated as stroke volume multiplied by heart rate. Normal cardiac output is 5 liters per minute. Cardiac output is regulated by factors that influence stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume depends on end diastolic volume and end systolic volume. Heart rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, including the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves, as well as the vasomotor center in the medulla. Parasympathetic stimulation decreases heart rate while sympathetic stimulation increases it.
Hemodynamics
This document discusses the components and function of the cardiovascular system. It describes the main parts of the circulatory system including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. It explains how blood flows through vessels, defining concepts like blood flow, velocity, resistance and hemodynamics. Key factors that affect blood flow dynamics are vessel size, blood viscosity, resistance and vessel elasticity. Equations are provided for calculating velocity and blood flow based on factors like pressure gradient and resistance.
Arterial blood pressure regulation
This document discusses the concepts of blood pressure including systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressure. It defines normal blood pressure ranges and factors that can influence blood pressure such as age, sex, body size, emotions, exercise, meals, sleep, and gravity. The relationship between cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and blood pressure is explained. Mechanisms for short-term blood pressure regulation including baroreceptor reflex, chemoreceptor reflex, and central nervous system ischemic response are outlined. Long-term regulation involves the kidneys, renin-angiotensin system, and pressure natriuresis.
Excitation Contraction Coupling
This document discusses excitation-contraction coupling (EC coupling) in skeletal muscle. It begins by defining EC coupling as the process by which an action potential triggers muscle contraction through calcium ion release. It then describes how the action potential spreads through the T-tubule system and activates the dihydropyridine and ryanodine receptors, causing calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This triggers the contraction sequence and binding of calcium to troponin. Relaxation occurs via reuptake of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by SERCA pumps. Differences in smooth and cardiac muscle EC coupling are also summarized.
Excitation - Contraction coupling
The document summarizes the mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction. It describes how an action potential leads to a rise in intracellular calcium levels through excitation-contraction coupling. This triggers the sliding filament theory where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through cross-bridge cycling powered by ATP hydrolysis. Calcium binds to troponin C, allowing the power stroke to occur as myosin heads pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs as calcium is re-sequestered in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, breaking the cross-bridges.
Cardiovascular regulation
This document discusses cardiovascular regulation through humoral, neuronal, and local control systems. It provides details on various vasodilators and vasoconstrictors that regulate blood flow and pressure through humoral mechanisms. Key neuronal control centers in the medulla are described, including the vasomotor center, nucleus ambiguus, and nucleus tractus solitarius. The roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in regulating heart rate and blood vessel tone are also outlined.
Microcirculation
This document outlines a lecture on microcirculation. It begins by stating the objectives of understanding microcirculation functions and control. The content includes the structure of capillaries and microcirculation, factors that influence permeability, exchange of fluids between blood and tissues, Starling forces, and abnormalities in capillary pressure. Examples are given of typical capillary beds and how structures vary between tissues. The key concepts of vasomotion, Starling equilibrium, and net filtration pressure are also explained.
Properties of cm, plateau potential & pacemaker by Pandian M this PPT for I ...
Describe the properties of cardiac muscle including its morphology, electrical, mechanical and metabolic functions SLOs: After attending lecture & studying the assigned materials, the student will: 1.Describe the general features of cardiac muscle. 2.Discuss the light and electron microscopic appearance of cardiac muscle, characteristic features of sarcotubular system. 3.Enlist the electrical properties of heart muscle. 4.Explain the phases of cardiac muscle action potential 5.Explain the nodal action potential. 6.Differentiate between cardiac muscle A.P. and nodal A.P., effect of nervous innervation and ions on AP. 7.Enumerate and explain the mechanical properties of heart muscle, metabolic functions, characteristic features.
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Cardiac output (The Guyton and Hall Physiology)
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute. It is calculated as stroke volume multiplied by heart rate. Normal cardiac output is 5 liters per minute. Cardiac output is regulated by factors that influence stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume depends on end diastolic volume and end systolic volume. Heart rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, including the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves, as well as the vasomotor center in the medulla. Parasympathetic stimulation decreases heart rate while sympathetic stimulation increases it.
Hemodynamics
This document discusses the components and function of the cardiovascular system. It describes the main parts of the circulatory system including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. It explains how blood flows through vessels, defining concepts like blood flow, velocity, resistance and hemodynamics. Key factors that affect blood flow dynamics are vessel size, blood viscosity, resistance and vessel elasticity. Equations are provided for calculating velocity and blood flow based on factors like pressure gradient and resistance.
Arterial blood pressure regulation
This document discusses the concepts of blood pressure including systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressure. It defines normal blood pressure ranges and factors that can influence blood pressure such as age, sex, body size, emotions, exercise, meals, sleep, and gravity. The relationship between cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and blood pressure is explained. Mechanisms for short-term blood pressure regulation including baroreceptor reflex, chemoreceptor reflex, and central nervous system ischemic response are outlined. Long-term regulation involves the kidneys, renin-angiotensin system, and pressure natriuresis.
Excitation Contraction Coupling
This document discusses excitation-contraction coupling (EC coupling) in skeletal muscle. It begins by defining EC coupling as the process by which an action potential triggers muscle contraction through calcium ion release. It then describes how the action potential spreads through the T-tubule system and activates the dihydropyridine and ryanodine receptors, causing calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This triggers the contraction sequence and binding of calcium to troponin. Relaxation occurs via reuptake of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by SERCA pumps. Differences in smooth and cardiac muscle EC coupling are also summarized.
Excitation - Contraction coupling
The document summarizes the mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction. It describes how an action potential leads to a rise in intracellular calcium levels through excitation-contraction coupling. This triggers the sliding filament theory where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through cross-bridge cycling powered by ATP hydrolysis. Calcium binds to troponin C, allowing the power stroke to occur as myosin heads pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs as calcium is re-sequestered in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, breaking the cross-bridges.
Cardiovascular regulation
This document discusses cardiovascular regulation through humoral, neuronal, and local control systems. It provides details on various vasodilators and vasoconstrictors that regulate blood flow and pressure through humoral mechanisms. Key neuronal control centers in the medulla are described, including the vasomotor center, nucleus ambiguus, and nucleus tractus solitarius. The roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in regulating heart rate and blood vessel tone are also outlined.
Microcirculation
This document outlines a lecture on microcirculation. It begins by stating the objectives of understanding microcirculation functions and control. The content includes the structure of capillaries and microcirculation, factors that influence permeability, exchange of fluids between blood and tissues, Starling forces, and abnormalities in capillary pressure. Examples are given of typical capillary beds and how structures vary between tissues. The key concepts of vasomotion, Starling equilibrium, and net filtration pressure are also explained.
Properties of cm, plateau potential & pacemaker by Pandian M this PPT for I ...
Describe the properties of cardiac muscle including its morphology, electrical, mechanical and metabolic functions SLOs: After attending lecture & studying the assigned materials, the student will: 1.Describe the general features of cardiac muscle. 2.Discuss the light and electron microscopic appearance of cardiac muscle, characteristic features of sarcotubular system. 3.Enlist the electrical properties of heart muscle. 4.Explain the phases of cardiac muscle action potential 5.Explain the nodal action potential. 6.Differentiate between cardiac muscle A.P. and nodal A.P., effect of nervous innervation and ions on AP. 7.Enumerate and explain the mechanical properties of heart muscle, metabolic functions, characteristic features.
Regulation of-arterial-blood-pressure
This document discusses the regulation of arterial blood pressure. It defines terms related to blood pressure and lists factors that can cause physiological variations. The determinants of arterial blood pressure are cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. Blood pressure is regulated through short, intermediate, and long-term control mechanisms involving the nervous system, kidneys, hormones, and local factors. The baroreceptor and renin-angiotensin systems help maintain normal blood pressure levels.
Baroreceptor Reflex Mechanism
Baroreceptors in the arteries detect changes in blood pressure and relay this information to the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system then works to maintain blood pressure within a normal range by increasing or decreasing total peripheral resistance and cardiac output through sympathetic or parasympathetic activation. Baroreceptors form a negative feedback loop, where increases in blood pressure lead to reductions in sympathetic activity and increases in parasympathetic activity to lower blood pressure back to normal levels.
Cardiac muscle physiology
This document provides an overview of cardiac muscle structure and function. It defines key terms related to the properties of cardiac muscle such as rhythmicity, excitability, conductivity, and contractility. It describes the cardiac syncytium and normal conduction pathway in the heart. It explains excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscle and compares it to skeletal muscle. It also compares action potentials in the sinoatrial node and ventricular muscle. Finally, it discusses the significance of the plateau and refractory period in ventricular muscle action potentials.
Contractile mechanism of smooth muscle
This document provides an overview of the contractile mechanism of smooth muscle. It discusses:
1. The physical basis of smooth muscle contraction including the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments.
2. The chemical basis being similar to skeletal muscle but without a troponin complex.
3. Key differences from skeletal muscle including slower cycling of myosin cross-bridges, lower energy requirements, and a "latch mechanism" allowing prolonged contraction.
4. The role of calcium ions and proteins like calmodulin in activating phosphorylation of the myosin head and initiating contraction.
Pressure changes
1. Static lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
2. Dynamic lung volumes include maximum voluntary ventilation and forced expiratory volume, which measure the maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs over time.
3. Pulmonary ventilation is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing per minute, while alveolar ventilation is the volume of fresh air entering the respiratory zone and participating in gas exchange.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
Amphibian Graphs- Cardiac Muscle
This document discusses the effects of temperature, ions, drugs, and nerve stimulation on the frog heart as measured by cardiograms. It includes:
1) Drawings and explanations of ideal graphs showing how warm and cold saline affect the heart rate and amplitude of the sinus venosus and ventricle.
2) Descriptions of how the first and second Stannius ligatures prove the sinus venosus is the pacemaker and demonstrate auto rhythmicity.
3) A graph and definition of vagal escape along with its causes when stimulating the vagus nerve.
4) Graphs and explanations of how sodium, calcium, potassium, adrenaline, and acetylcholine affect heart rate and
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
Arterial blood pressure
Normal arterial blood pressure ranges from 90-140/60-90 mmHg. Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when blood is ejected from the heart, while diastolic is the minimum pressure when the heart is resting between beats. Mean arterial pressure, which averages 93 mmHg, is the main driving force for blood flow. Blood pressure is regulated through short term mechanisms like baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes which control heart rate and vascular tone, and long term factors like blood volume and vessel elasticity. Strict control of blood pressure is important to ensure adequate blood flow to vital organs.
Counter current mechanism in kidney
The document discusses countercurrent exchange systems in various organs and tissues of the body including the kidney. It describes how the countercurrent multiplier system in the loop of Henle establishes a gradient that is maintained by the countercurrent exchanger system of the vasa recta, allowing the kidney to produce concentrated urine through the medullary countercurrent system. It also discusses how diuretics work by targeting different sites along the nephron to increase urine output.
cardiac output,
This document discusses cardiac output and the factors that affect it. It defines key terms like stroke volume, minute volume, cardiac index and cardiac reserve. It describes physiological factors like age, gender, exercise and posture as well as pathological factors like fever, anemia and heart failure that can impact cardiac output. The document also covers methods of measuring cardiac output like Fick's principle, dye dilution and thermodilution techniques.
CORONARY CIRCULATION
This document provides an overview of coronary circulation and coronary blood flow. It discusses the anatomy of the coronary blood vessels, characteristics of coronary blood flow such as rates at rest and during exercise. It describes phasic changes in coronary blood flow during the cardiac cycle. Methods for measuring coronary blood flow are presented. The regulation of coronary blood flow through local control mechanisms like autoregulation and metabolic factors as well as neural and hormonal influences are reviewed. Finally, factors that can affect coronary blood flow such as blood pressure, exercise, and hormones are outlined.
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
This document discusses the neuro-muscular junction, including its structure, function, and related disorders. It begins by outlining the objectives of describing the junction's schematic diagram, transmission events, neuromuscular blockers and their mechanisms, and common disorders. It then provides details on the presynaptic and postsynaptic portions, the synaptic cleft, acetylcholine receptors, and the steps of neuromuscular transmission. Examples are given of neuromuscular blockers like curare and their mechanisms of action. Disorders covered include myasthenia gravis and Lambert-Eaton syndrome.
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT
This document discusses the determinants and factors affecting cardiac output. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, which is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Ejection fraction is explained as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat. Cardiac output can vary due to physiological factors like age, sex, exercise, and pathological factors like fever or shock. Cardiac output is maintained by four main factors - venous return, force of contraction, heart rate, and peripheral resistance. Venous return depends on respiratory pumping, muscle pumping, gravity, and venous pressure.
Bp regulation
This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure on short, intermediate, and long term timescales.
Short term regulation occurs over seconds to minutes and involves baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the central nervous system ischemic response. Intermediate regulation over minutes to hours is mediated by capillary fluid shifts and stress relaxation in blood vessels. Long term regulation over days to years involves the renal body fluid mechanism and renin-angiotensin system to control extracellular fluid levels and blood pressure.
Microcirculation
The document discusses microcirculation and the structure and function of capillaries. It defines microcirculation as blood flow through vessels smaller than 100μm, including arterioles, capillaries, and venules. Capillaries function to transport cells, oxygen, and other substances to and from tissues, and regulate body temperature. The capillary wall has a single layer of endothelial cells and pores of different sizes depending on the organ, through which substances diffuse. Interstitial fluid in the spaces between cells contains a gel-like substance that allows fluid to diffuse but not flow.
Baroreceptors And Negative Feedback Mechanism
Baroreceptors are mechanoreceptors located in the carotid arteries and aorta that detect changes in blood pressure. As part of a negative feedback system called the baroreflex, baroreceptors send signals to the brain to increase or decrease heart rate and vascular resistance to maintain normal blood pressure. When blood pressure rises, baroreceptors inhibit the vasomotor center of the brain to decrease sympathetic nervous system activity and lower blood pressure. Conversely, lower blood pressure activates the vasomotor center to increase sympathetic activity and raise blood pressure. In addition to short term regulation, baroreceptors can reset over days to the new blood pressure level in cases of chronic high blood pressure.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized organ located near the glomerulus of each nephron. It consists of four main parts: the macula densa, extraglomerular mesangial cells, glomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes two important hormones, renin and prostaglandin. Renin plays a key role in regulating blood pressure as part of the renin-angiotensin system. The secretion of renin is stimulated by decreases in arterial blood pressure, extracellular fluid volume, sodium chloride levels at the macula densa, and increased sympathetic activity.
Regulation of arterial blood pressure
There are three main mechanisms that control arterial blood pressure:
1. Rapid mechanisms act within seconds to minutes through baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes in the medulla to increase or decrease heart rate, cardiac contractility, and peripheral resistance.
2. Intermediate mechanisms act over hours to days through stress relaxation of blood vessels and capillary fluid shifts to regulate blood volume and pressure.
3. Long-term mechanisms act over days to weeks through regulation of extracellular fluid volume by atrial natriuretic peptide, ADH, and the renin-angiotensin system to control blood pressure by altering sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys.
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
Regulation of blood circulation
This document discusses various factors that regulate blood flow locally and systemically. It covers topics such as local blood flow regulation including reactive and active hyperemia. It also discusses humoral regulation by various vasoconstrictors like epinephrine, vasopressin, angiotensin, and endothelin as well as vasodilators like bradykinin, serotonin, prostaglandins, and histamine. Finally, it mentions regulation by ions and chemicals in the blood as well as long-term regulation through angiogenesis and collateral circulation development.
Heart rate
- Heart rate, or heart pulse, is measured by the number of heartbeats per minute. It can vary from 60-100 beats per minute at rest and is regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Factors like exercise, stress, illness and drugs can cause changes in heart rate.
- Abnormal heart rates include bradycardia, which is a slow heart rate below 60 bpm, and tachycardia, which is a fast heart rate above 100 bpm. Irregular heart rhythms are called arrhythmias.
- The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate by releasing norepinephrine, while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases it by releasing acetylcholine. A
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Regulation of-arterial-blood-pressure
This document discusses the regulation of arterial blood pressure. It defines terms related to blood pressure and lists factors that can cause physiological variations. The determinants of arterial blood pressure are cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. Blood pressure is regulated through short, intermediate, and long-term control mechanisms involving the nervous system, kidneys, hormones, and local factors. The baroreceptor and renin-angiotensin systems help maintain normal blood pressure levels.
Baroreceptor Reflex Mechanism
Baroreceptors in the arteries detect changes in blood pressure and relay this information to the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system then works to maintain blood pressure within a normal range by increasing or decreasing total peripheral resistance and cardiac output through sympathetic or parasympathetic activation. Baroreceptors form a negative feedback loop, where increases in blood pressure lead to reductions in sympathetic activity and increases in parasympathetic activity to lower blood pressure back to normal levels.
Cardiac muscle physiology
This document provides an overview of cardiac muscle structure and function. It defines key terms related to the properties of cardiac muscle such as rhythmicity, excitability, conductivity, and contractility. It describes the cardiac syncytium and normal conduction pathway in the heart. It explains excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscle and compares it to skeletal muscle. It also compares action potentials in the sinoatrial node and ventricular muscle. Finally, it discusses the significance of the plateau and refractory period in ventricular muscle action potentials.
Contractile mechanism of smooth muscle
This document provides an overview of the contractile mechanism of smooth muscle. It discusses:
1. The physical basis of smooth muscle contraction including the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments.
2. The chemical basis being similar to skeletal muscle but without a troponin complex.
3. Key differences from skeletal muscle including slower cycling of myosin cross-bridges, lower energy requirements, and a "latch mechanism" allowing prolonged contraction.
4. The role of calcium ions and proteins like calmodulin in activating phosphorylation of the myosin head and initiating contraction.
Pressure changes
1. Static lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
2. Dynamic lung volumes include maximum voluntary ventilation and forced expiratory volume, which measure the maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs over time.
3. Pulmonary ventilation is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing per minute, while alveolar ventilation is the volume of fresh air entering the respiratory zone and participating in gas exchange.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
Amphibian Graphs- Cardiac Muscle
This document discusses the effects of temperature, ions, drugs, and nerve stimulation on the frog heart as measured by cardiograms. It includes:
1) Drawings and explanations of ideal graphs showing how warm and cold saline affect the heart rate and amplitude of the sinus venosus and ventricle.
2) Descriptions of how the first and second Stannius ligatures prove the sinus venosus is the pacemaker and demonstrate auto rhythmicity.
3) A graph and definition of vagal escape along with its causes when stimulating the vagus nerve.
4) Graphs and explanations of how sodium, calcium, potassium, adrenaline, and acetylcholine affect heart rate and
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
Arterial blood pressure
Normal arterial blood pressure ranges from 90-140/60-90 mmHg. Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when blood is ejected from the heart, while diastolic is the minimum pressure when the heart is resting between beats. Mean arterial pressure, which averages 93 mmHg, is the main driving force for blood flow. Blood pressure is regulated through short term mechanisms like baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes which control heart rate and vascular tone, and long term factors like blood volume and vessel elasticity. Strict control of blood pressure is important to ensure adequate blood flow to vital organs.
Counter current mechanism in kidney
The document discusses countercurrent exchange systems in various organs and tissues of the body including the kidney. It describes how the countercurrent multiplier system in the loop of Henle establishes a gradient that is maintained by the countercurrent exchanger system of the vasa recta, allowing the kidney to produce concentrated urine through the medullary countercurrent system. It also discusses how diuretics work by targeting different sites along the nephron to increase urine output.
cardiac output,
This document discusses cardiac output and the factors that affect it. It defines key terms like stroke volume, minute volume, cardiac index and cardiac reserve. It describes physiological factors like age, gender, exercise and posture as well as pathological factors like fever, anemia and heart failure that can impact cardiac output. The document also covers methods of measuring cardiac output like Fick's principle, dye dilution and thermodilution techniques.
CORONARY CIRCULATION
This document provides an overview of coronary circulation and coronary blood flow. It discusses the anatomy of the coronary blood vessels, characteristics of coronary blood flow such as rates at rest and during exercise. It describes phasic changes in coronary blood flow during the cardiac cycle. Methods for measuring coronary blood flow are presented. The regulation of coronary blood flow through local control mechanisms like autoregulation and metabolic factors as well as neural and hormonal influences are reviewed. Finally, factors that can affect coronary blood flow such as blood pressure, exercise, and hormones are outlined.
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
This document discusses the neuro-muscular junction, including its structure, function, and related disorders. It begins by outlining the objectives of describing the junction's schematic diagram, transmission events, neuromuscular blockers and their mechanisms, and common disorders. It then provides details on the presynaptic and postsynaptic portions, the synaptic cleft, acetylcholine receptors, and the steps of neuromuscular transmission. Examples are given of neuromuscular blockers like curare and their mechanisms of action. Disorders covered include myasthenia gravis and Lambert-Eaton syndrome.
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT
This document discusses the determinants and factors affecting cardiac output. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, which is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Ejection fraction is explained as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat. Cardiac output can vary due to physiological factors like age, sex, exercise, and pathological factors like fever or shock. Cardiac output is maintained by four main factors - venous return, force of contraction, heart rate, and peripheral resistance. Venous return depends on respiratory pumping, muscle pumping, gravity, and venous pressure.
Bp regulation
This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure on short, intermediate, and long term timescales.
Short term regulation occurs over seconds to minutes and involves baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the central nervous system ischemic response. Intermediate regulation over minutes to hours is mediated by capillary fluid shifts and stress relaxation in blood vessels. Long term regulation over days to years involves the renal body fluid mechanism and renin-angiotensin system to control extracellular fluid levels and blood pressure.
Microcirculation
The document discusses microcirculation and the structure and function of capillaries. It defines microcirculation as blood flow through vessels smaller than 100μm, including arterioles, capillaries, and venules. Capillaries function to transport cells, oxygen, and other substances to and from tissues, and regulate body temperature. The capillary wall has a single layer of endothelial cells and pores of different sizes depending on the organ, through which substances diffuse. Interstitial fluid in the spaces between cells contains a gel-like substance that allows fluid to diffuse but not flow.
Baroreceptors And Negative Feedback Mechanism
Baroreceptors are mechanoreceptors located in the carotid arteries and aorta that detect changes in blood pressure. As part of a negative feedback system called the baroreflex, baroreceptors send signals to the brain to increase or decrease heart rate and vascular resistance to maintain normal blood pressure. When blood pressure rises, baroreceptors inhibit the vasomotor center of the brain to decrease sympathetic nervous system activity and lower blood pressure. Conversely, lower blood pressure activates the vasomotor center to increase sympathetic activity and raise blood pressure. In addition to short term regulation, baroreceptors can reset over days to the new blood pressure level in cases of chronic high blood pressure.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized organ located near the glomerulus of each nephron. It consists of four main parts: the macula densa, extraglomerular mesangial cells, glomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes two important hormones, renin and prostaglandin. Renin plays a key role in regulating blood pressure as part of the renin-angiotensin system. The secretion of renin is stimulated by decreases in arterial blood pressure, extracellular fluid volume, sodium chloride levels at the macula densa, and increased sympathetic activity.
Regulation of arterial blood pressure
There are three main mechanisms that control arterial blood pressure:
1. Rapid mechanisms act within seconds to minutes through baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes in the medulla to increase or decrease heart rate, cardiac contractility, and peripheral resistance.
2. Intermediate mechanisms act over hours to days through stress relaxation of blood vessels and capillary fluid shifts to regulate blood volume and pressure.
3. Long-term mechanisms act over days to weeks through regulation of extracellular fluid volume by atrial natriuretic peptide, ADH, and the renin-angiotensin system to control blood pressure by altering sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys.
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
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Juxtaglomerular apparatus (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
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Regulation of blood circulation
This document discusses various factors that regulate blood flow locally and systemically. It covers topics such as local blood flow regulation including reactive and active hyperemia. It also discusses humoral regulation by various vasoconstrictors like epinephrine, vasopressin, angiotensin, and endothelin as well as vasodilators like bradykinin, serotonin, prostaglandins, and histamine. Finally, it mentions regulation by ions and chemicals in the blood as well as long-term regulation through angiogenesis and collateral circulation development.
Heart rate
- Heart rate, or heart pulse, is measured by the number of heartbeats per minute. It can vary from 60-100 beats per minute at rest and is regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Factors like exercise, stress, illness and drugs can cause changes in heart rate.
- Abnormal heart rates include bradycardia, which is a slow heart rate below 60 bpm, and tachycardia, which is a fast heart rate above 100 bpm. Irregular heart rhythms are called arrhythmias.
- The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate by releasing norepinephrine, while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases it by releasing acetylcholine. A
The Cardiovascular System
The document summarizes key concepts about the cardiovascular system and the heart as a pump. It discusses topics like stroke volume, ejection fraction, preload, afterload, cardiac cycle events, regulation of cardiac pumping, and factors that affect cardiac output. It provides an overview of the heart's structure and function in pumping blood throughout the body.
Regulation of blood pressure
There are four main mechanisms that regulate blood pressure: nervous, renal, hormonal, and local. The nervous mechanism acts the fastest via the vasomotor system to control heart rate and vasoconstriction/vasodilation in response to baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. The renal mechanism regulates blood pressure long-term by controlling extracellular fluid volume and through the renin-angiotensin system. Hormonal and local factors also contribute to blood pressure regulation.
Cardiovascular physiology
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart weighs 200-400 grams and pumps around 7,751 litres of blood daily. It is located behind the sternum and is surrounded by membranes. Blood enters and exits the heart through major vessels while valves regulate flow between chambers. The heart muscle generates electrical impulses and contractions to circulate blood throughout the body. Cardiac output is regulated intrinsically through preload and afterload as well as extrinsically through the nervous and endocrine systems.
Local control of blood vessels
Local control of blood flow is achieved through the contraction and relaxation of precapillary sphincters, which is controlled by tissue metabolic needs. Nervous control is carried out by the sympathetic nervous system through vasomotor centers and tone. Baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes help regulate blood pressure and respond to changes in pressure, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH. Hormones like epinephrine, renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, ADH, and atrial natriuretic hormone also help control blood pressure.
01 FFR Mongrain aimradial2016 - coronary blood flow
01 FFR Mongrain aimradial2016 - coronary blood flowInternational Chair on Interventional Cardiology and Transradial Approach
This document discusses fractional flow reserve (FFR) and instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR), which are used to assess the severity of a stenosis. It notes that calculating FFR requires making assumptions and simplifications from a fluid mechanics perspective. Specifically, it assumes hydraulic models, neglects venous pressure, assumes equal myocardial resistances, and faces challenges in measuring distal pressure due to dynamic pressure effects, which are more problematic at higher flow rates. The document suggests iFR measurement of distal pressure could be even more inaccurate due to typically higher velocities during the wave-free period.circulation1
This document discusses cardiovascular circulation and hemodynamics. It covers general principles such as how the right and left hearts are interdependent and how blood flow to individual organs can be controlled independently. It also discusses factors that influence blood flow, pressure, and resistance such as vessel diameter, compliance, Poiseuille's law, and the types of vessels. Other topics covered include arterial pressures, pulse pressure, transmission of arterial pulsations, factors affecting mean arterial pressure, and physiological variations in blood pressure.
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The document discusses hemodynamics and blood flow through the circulatory system. It describes the structure of the heart including the atria and ventricles. Blood flows from the left ventricle through the aorta and arteries to tissues, then returns to the right atrium via veins. Heart valves like the mitral and tricuspid valves regulate blood flow. Blood pressure is highest in the arteries and driven by ventricular contraction. Common techniques to measure blood pressure include auscultation and sphygmomanometry.
BioGears Intrapericardial Pressure: World Congress of Biomechanics
The BioGears Project is an open source, multi-purpose physiology engine. This poster was presented by BioGears phyiology modeler, Rodney Metoyer at the World Congress of Biomechanics. The title of the poster is: "Modeling the Time-Dependent Intrapericardial Pressure-Volume Relationship with Effusion"
Physio presentation pressure flow and resistance
The document summarizes key concepts related to blood flow and circulation. It describes the systemic and pulmonary circulations, defining blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance. It explains laminar and turbulent blood flow, and provides Reynolds' number equation. Conductance and Hagen-Poiseuille's law are also summarized, with the latter relating blood flow rate to pressure difference, radius, viscosity and vessel length.
Hemodynamics
The document discusses hemodynamics, which is the movement of blood in the blood vessels outside the heart. The main factors that regulate blood flow are pressure gradients, vessel diameter, length, and blood viscosity. Blood flow is directly proportional to vessel diameter and inversely proportional to length and viscosity. Arteries have thicker muscular walls than veins and carry blood at higher pressures. Veins have thinner, more distensible walls and store about 65% of the total blood volume at lower pressures. Laminar flow is smooth flow near vessel walls while turbulent flow occurs when flow becomes irregular, such as during stenosis. Maximum resistance to blood flow occurs in the arterioles.
Sk microfluidics and lab on-a-chip-ch2
This document provides an overview of microfluidics principles for biomedical applications. It contains 6 chapters, beginning with introductions to microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip technologies. Chapter 2 discusses basic principles of microfluidics, including fluid transport at different dimensional scales, types of fluid flow, Reynolds number, viscosity, diffusion, and pressure driven flow. It also covers topics like surface tension, capillary effects, hydrophilicity, and various transport processes in microfluidic systems.
Biomecanics of circulation
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen to tissues and remove waste. It is divided into systemic and pulmonary circulation. Blood flows from arteries to arterioles and capillaries, where gas and nutrient exchange occurs, then to venules and veins, which return blood to the heart. Precise control of blood flow to each tissue is critical to meet metabolic demands.
Cardiovascular system flow and pressure
This document provides an outline and overview of the cardiovascular system, including blood flow, blood pressure, vasculature, arteries, capillaries, veins, and lymphatic circulation. It discusses the physical laws governing blood flow and pressure, factors that influence resistance and peripheral resistance. It also examines the regulation of blood flow and pressure through intrinsic controls like metabolic activity and stretch of arteries as well as extrinsic controls like neural and hormonal mechanisms. The goal is to explain how blood is circulated and pressure is maintained through the complex cardiovascular system.
Microfluidics and Nanofluidics
Microfluidics and nanofluidics involve the manipulation of fluids in channels with small dimensions, including cross-sectional areas less than 100 micrometers for microfluidics and the nanometer scale for nanofluidics. Key applications of microfluidics and nanofluidics include lab-on-a-chip systems, molecular biology, and the study of transport phenomena at small scales. Forces that dominate at the nanoscale include electrostatic, van der Waals, and capillary forces. Nanofluidic systems have potential applications in analytical chemistry, studying gene expression, and water purification.
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Hemodynamic monitoring involves measuring factors that influence blood flow and pressure to aid in diagnosing and managing critically ill patients. It uses Doppler ultrasound to analyze blood flow spectra and determine velocity measurements. The spectral display shows velocity over time and can reveal flow direction and indices like resistive index. The document defines six types of blood flow seen: plug, laminar, parabolic, disturbed, turbulent, and pulsatile.
Physiology Of Circulation
The document discusses cardiac output, blood flow, blood pressure, and factors that regulate them. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, and describes how it is determined by heart rate and stroke volume. Stroke volume depends on preload, contractility, and afterload. The autonomic nervous system and other factors control heart rate and contractility. Blood flow is determined by pressure differences and vascular resistance. The document also covers blood pressure measurement and control via the baroreceptor reflex.
Blood Flow
The document summarizes the human circulatory system. It describes how unoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart from the body, passes to the right ventricle, and is then pumped via the pulmonary arteries to the lungs where it receives oxygen. The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins and is then pumped by the left ventricle through the aorta to the body tissues, where oxygen is delivered and carbon dioxide picked up, before returning again to the right atrium to restart the cycle. The blood also transports nutrients, wastes, hormones and antibodies around the body simultaneously.
blood flow measurement
This ppt provides basic idea about different blood flow measurement systems. It is helpful in biomedical instrumentation and nursing field.
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Regulation of blood pressure
This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure. It begins by defining key terms related to blood pressure like systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressure. It then discusses factors that determine blood pressure like cardiac output and peripheral resistance. The document outlines several regulatory mechanisms for blood pressure, including local mechanisms like autoregulation and vasoactive substances, as well as systemic mechanisms involving hormonal and nervous control. Specific hormones, neurotransmitters, and reflex mechanisms that play roles in regulating blood pressure are also mentioned.
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The circulatory system supplies blood to the brain through arteries and veins. Blood flow to the brain is precisely regulated to maintain normal oxygen consumption and is measured using techniques like the Kety method, SPECT, PET, and MRI. Cerebral blood flow is regulated by factors like arterial blood pressure, intracranial pressure, vessel diameter, and autoregulation which keeps blood flow stable despite changes in systemic pressure between 60-140 mmHg.
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This document discusses microcirculation and the factors that influence blood flow at the capillary level. It defines capillary circulation and notes the importance of local control mechanisms in matching blood flow to the metabolic needs of tissues. The key concepts covered include the Starling forces that govern fluid filtration across capillary walls, the role of the lymphatic system in fluid drainage, and causes of edema related to increased capillary pressure, decreased oncotic pressure, or increased capillary permeability.
Cerebral blood flow
Cerebral blood flow is tightly regulated to meet the high metabolic demands of the brain. Blood circulates to the brain through the carotid and vertebral arteries which connect at the circle of Willis. Factors like blood pressure, carbon dioxide levels, oxygen, temperature and various chemicals regulate blood flow. The brain has autoregulatory mechanisms to maintain constant blood flow over a range of pressures. Failure of autoregulation can lead to ischemia or hyperperfusion. Clinical considerations include risks for hypertensive or elderly patients and treatments focus on preventing hypotension and ischemia.
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Blood vessels transport blood throughout the body. There are three main types: arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, where nutrients and wastes are exchanged; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Blood flow is regulated through pressure, resistance, and the actions of the cardiovascular system to ensure adequate circulation throughout the body. Neural and hormonal mechanisms precisely control blood pressure and flow through reflexes and the release of substances like epinephrine and norepinephrine.
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Autoregulation is the intrinsic ability of an organ to maintain constant blood flow despite changes in perfusion pressure. It occurs through the dilation of resistance vessels in response to decreased blood flow. The main mechanisms of autoregulation are metabolic, myogenic, tubuloglomerular feedback, and tissue pressure. Different organs have varying degrees of autoregulatory ability, with the renal, cerebral, and coronary circulations having excellent autoregulation. Autoregulation ensures adequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to critical organs.
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Blood consists of plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It circulates through the body in arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. Blood performs critical functions like transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removing waste products. Precise regulation of blood pressure, volume, pH, and temperature is vital for homeostasis.
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Here are the key points about the baroreceptor reflex:
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- When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stimulated and send action potentials to the cardioregulatory center in the medulla oblongata.
- The cardioregulatory center responds by increasing parasympathetic stimulation and decreasing sympathetic stimulation to the heart. This lowers heart rate and stroke volume.
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The baroreceptor reflex is an important autonomic mechanism that helps regulate short-term blood pressure levels
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Here are the key points about the baroreceptor reflex:
- Baroreceptors are pressure sensors located in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch.
- When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stimulated and send action potentials to the cardioregulatory center in the medulla oblongata.
- The cardioregulatory center responds by increasing parasympathetic stimulation and decreasing sympathetic stimulation to the heart. This lowers heart rate and stroke volume.
- The end result is a decline in blood pressure, providing a negative feedback loop to maintain normal blood pressure levels.
The baroreceptor reflex is an important autonomic mechanism that helps regulate short-term blood pressure through adjustments to
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2. The circulatory system has cardiac and vascular innervation from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which control heart rate, contraction force, and vessel diameter.
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The document discusses the local regulation of blood flow through autoregulation. Autoregulation is the intrinsic ability of an organ to regulate a constant blood flow despite changes in perfusion pressure. It is independent of neural and hormonal influences. Autoregulation is explained by the myogenic theory, where changes in vessel stretching lead to vasoconstriction or vasodilation, and the metabolic theory, where the accumulation or washing out of metabolic byproducts causes vessel dilation or constriction to maintain normal blood flow. The mean arterial pressure of around 93 mm Hg is the major factor determining perfusion pressure and the normal range of autoregulation.
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This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure through short term, intermediate term, and long term mechanisms. Short term regulation occurs within seconds to minutes and involves the baroreceptor reflex, chemoreceptors, central nervous system ischemic response, and atrial stretch receptors. Intermediate term regulation occurs from 30 minutes to hours and involves the renin-angiotensin system, capillary shift mechanism, and stretch relaxation of blood vessels. Long term regulation acts over days to months and is controlled by the renal body fluid control mechanism and aldosterone.
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Cardio regulatory mechanism
- 2. By MNR Medical College & Hospital, Sangareddy
- 3. • Types of regulations • Types of local regulations • Systemic regulatory mechanisms
- 5. • Maintains adequate blood flow to organs like heart and brain while others receive less flow by altering the diameter of arterioles by pre capillary sphincter.
- 6. 1. LOCAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS: Available locally within a tissue or organ maintain constant blood flow by arteriolar and precapilary sphincters. 2. SYSTEMIC REGULATORY MECHANISM
- 7. Some organs have the capacity to regulate their own supply depending on the requirements is referred as auto regulation. E.g.., heart, kidney, brain and skeletal muscles.
- 8. 1. ACUTE/ SHORT TERM REGULATION– acts immediately is of 3 types again. i. Myogenic Principle ii. Local metabolites iii. Local hormones LONG TERM REGULATION
- 11. SYMPATHETIC DISCHARGE @1 IMP/SEC CAUSES STRECH OF VESSEL WALL LEADS TO CONTRACTION OF SMOOTH MUSCLE.
- 15. When the exiting vasculature is unable to meet the blood flow requirements of the organ, the growth of new vasculature occurs called Angiogenesis. It is seen in growing organs/ organs suffering from ischaemia.
- 16. Which causes sprouting of new vessels from either venule/ capillaries which restores the blood flow depending upon the need.
- 18. 1. HORMONAL/ CHEMICAL: 2. NEURAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS