1. Benedict's test distinguishes between reducing and non-reducing sugars by detecting the presence of aldehyde groups in reducing sugars, which reduce copper sulfate to a red/brown precipitate.
2. Seliwanoff's test distinguishes between aldohexoses and ketohexoses based on reaction speed, with ketoses producing a dark red solution more rapidly.
3. Iodine testing produces colors that identify polysaccharides by their ability to trap iodine molecules due to their larger size compared to monosaccharides and disaccharides.
This is chapter No 3 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy) Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
This is chapter No 3 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy) Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic AcidsKamran Mammadli
Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
Learning Objectives
1. Know that Carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
2. Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for Carboxylic Acids
3. 3. Predict physical properties of Carboxylic Acids
Gastrointestinal agents
Inorganic chemicals used to treat Castro intestinal tract by different class of agents
Acidifying Agents
ANTACID
PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENTS
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Chapter No 1 : Acids, Bases and BuffersChetan Jain
This is chapter No 1 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy)
Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic AcidsKamran Mammadli
Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
Learning Objectives
1. Know that Carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
2. Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for Carboxylic Acids
3. 3. Predict physical properties of Carboxylic Acids
Gastrointestinal agents
Inorganic chemicals used to treat Castro intestinal tract by different class of agents
Acidifying Agents
ANTACID
PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENTS
SALINE CATHARTICS
Chapter No 1 : Acids, Bases and BuffersChetan Jain
This is chapter No 1 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy)
Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
Based on the reactivity with Tollen’s, Benedict’s or Fehling’s reagent, carbohydrates are classified as;
Reducing sugars
Carbohydrates that can reduce Tollen’s, Benedict’s or Fehling’s reagents are called reducing sugars (sugar with free aldehyde or ketone group). All monosaccharides and most of the disaccharides are reducing sugars. Some examples are Maltose and Lactose.
Non-reducing sugars
Carbohydrates that cannot reduce Tollen’s, Benedict’s or Fehling’s reagents are called non-reducing sugars. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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6. Classification of carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides
• Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
• Oligosaccharides
• Di, tri, tetra, penta, up to 9 or 10
• Most important are the disaccharides (sucrose)
• Polysaccharides or glycans
7.
8. Monosaccharides
Aldoses (e.g., glucose)
have an aldehyde group at
one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have
a keto group, usually at C2.
C
C OHH
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
D-glucose
OH
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
D-fructose
9. Most of the names of
carbohydrates end in -ose
• Glucose-What plants make
• Maltose- used in making beer
(disaccharide)
• Fructose – found in fruit (monosaccharide)
• Sucrose- Table sugar (disaccharide)
• Lactose – In milk (disaccharide)
10. D vs L Designation
D & L designations
are based on the
configuration about
the single C with
four different groups
around it in
glyceraldehyde.
CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
L-glyceraldehydeD-glyceraldehyde
L-glyceraldehydeD-glyceraldehyde
11. Glucose can be found in a ring
structure or linear structure
• In Water
Haworth projection
12. Pentoses and
hexoses can
cyclize as the
ketone or aldehyde
reacts with a
distal OH.
Cyclic glucose
forms as the C1
aldehyde & C5
OH react, to form
a 6-member ring.
H O
OH
H
OHH
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H H O
OH
H
OHH
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
-D-glucose -D-glucose
23
4
5
6
1 1
6
5
4
3 2
H
CHO
C OH
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
1
5
2
3
4
6
D-glucose
(linear form)
13. Fructose forms
a 5-member furanose ring, by reaction of
the C2 keto group with the OH on C5.
CH2OH
C O
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
HOH2C
OH
CH2OH
H
OH H
H HO
O
1
6
5
4
3
2
6
5
4 3
2
1
D-fructose (linear) -D-fructofuranose
14. Cyclization of glucose produces a new carbon where the
OH can be up or down. The 2 structures are called
anomers, & .
(OH below the ring)
(OH above the ring).
H O
OH
H
OHH
OH
CH2OH
H
-D-glucose
OH
H H O
OH
H
OHH
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
-D-glucose
23
4
5
6
1 1
6
5
4
3 2
16. Benedict’s Test For Reducing
Sugars
Distinguish reducing from non-reducing sugars.
Reducing sugar …
Sugars that contain aldehyde groups that are oxidized to
carboxylic acids
In order for oxidation to occur, the cyclic form must first ring-
open to give the reactive aldehyde.
17. Benedict’s Test For Reducing
Sugars
Benedict’s reagent is a mild oxidant with CuSO4, Cu (II)
sulfate, as one of the reagents.
Copper (II) sulphate, Sodium carbonate and Sodium citrate.
18. Benedict’s Test For Reducing
Sugars
oxidized reduced
In the presence of a reducing sugar, the blue solution of
Cu (II) or Cu+2, is changed to a brick red/brown
precipitate of Copper (I) or Cu+1 oxide,Cu2O.
Formation of a brick red/brown precipitate is indicative
of the presence of reducing sugars.
precipitate
19. Benedict’s Test For Reducing
Sugars
All mono- and most disaccharide's will reduce
CuSO4, producing a precipitate of copper (I)
oxide on heating, so they are called reducing
sugars.
A precipitate indicates reducing sugars
Original Pale Blue = no reducing sugar
Brown/Red = reducing sugar
21. • Ketoses can also be reducing sugars
because they can isomerise to aldoses:
•
Benedict’s Test For Reducing
Sugars
22. Why sucrose is non-reducing sugar…
sucrose has a anomeric carbon which is not free since the
carbon links glucose and fructose and fructose does not
have free -OH group to undergo reducing reaction and to
open the ring so sucrose is non-reducing.
23. At the end of the lab…
• You should…
• Distinguish between reducing and non-reducing
sugar
• Understand the theory for Benedict’s test
• Know which of the tested carbohydrates are
positive or negative for Benedict’s solution and
why
24. Seliwanoff’s Test for Ketoses
Distinguishes between ketohexoses (ketone)
and aldohexoses (aldehyde) sugars.
25. Seliwanoff’s Test for Ketoses
Rapid appearance of a dark red solution indicates
the presence of a ketose
Aldohexoses react slower and the appearance of
the red solution takes longer
27. • Polysaccharides will react with iodine to
form a blue, red, violet, or purple
product which is a positive indicator of
the presence of a polysaccharide.
• Monosaccharides and disaccharides
are too small to trap iodine molecules
and do not form any dark color with
iodine
Iodine Test for Polysaccharides
29. Disaccharides and polysaccharides can
be hydrolyzed in acidic solution into
their component monosaccharides, and
then submitted to chemical tests like
Benedict's test.
Hydrolysis Test for Di- and
Polysaccharides
30. • Starch and sucrose do not give positive
test with Benedict’s. After hydrolysis,
sucrose produces fructose and glucose
that give a positive Benedict’s test.
• Sucrose + H2O -> Glucose + Fructose
Hydrolysis Test for Di- and
Polysaccharides
Negative
Benedict’s test
Positive
Benedict’s test
31. This test distinguishes carbohydrates that
undergo fermentation and those that do not.
Yeast is used as a source of an enzyme, zymase.
The products are CO2 and ethanol.
C6H12O6 + yeast C2H5OH + CO2
Formation of bubbles of carbon dioxide is used to
confirm the fermentation process
Fermentation Test
32. Benedict’s Test For Non-
Reducing Sugars
Non-Reducing sugars do not reduce copper sulphate.
However, if it is first hydrolysed to its constituent
monosaccharides, it will then give a positive Benedict’s
Test.
First test a sample for reducing sugars, to see if there are any
present before hydrolysis.
Then using a separate sample,
Boil the test solution with dilute hydrochloric acid for a few
minutes to hydrolyse the glycosidic bond.
Neutralise, by adding small amounts of solid sodium
hydrogen carbonate until it stops fizzing.
Perform the Benedict’s test
A positive result indicates the presence of simple non-
reducing sugar.
