Diamond has a giant covalent structure where each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbons, giving it properties like hardness and electrical insulation. It is used in cutting, jewelry due to its brilliance, and lasers. Graphite has layers of hexagonal carbon sheets bonded by van der Waals forces, making it soft and a conductor. It is used as a lubricant, in electrodes, and pencils. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions that form precipitates with soap. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling or adding washing soda while permanent hardness requires ion exchange or distillation. Carbon forms oxides, is a reducing agent, and is important in combustion, fermentation, and the carbon cycle.
Sodium carbonate, also known as washing soda, has the chemical formula Na2CO3. It occurs naturally as the minerals trona and nahcolite and is mainly produced commercially via the Solvay process. It has important industrial uses in glass, chemicals, detergents, and other products. The Solvay process involves purifying sodium chloride brine, precipitating sodium bicarbonate by reaction of the brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia, and thermally decomposing the bicarbonate to produce sodium carbonate. Trona deposits are also mined and processed to produce sodium carbonate.
This document summarizes information about sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), including its chemical formula, properties, common names, production methods, and uses. It occurs naturally as a crystalline dehydrate and is highly soluble in water. The most common production methods are the Leblanc process and Solvay process. Sodium carbonate has many industrial and household uses, such as in glassmaking, soap production, water softening, and cleaning products. China is currently the world's largest producer of sodium carbonate.
Some gases (Carbondioxide and Ammonia) Chapter for SEE NepalAnjan Nepal
The document discusses carbon dioxide (CO2). It provides its molecular formula (CO2), molecular weight (44 amu), and that it occurs in both free and combined states. CO2 is formed through the reaction of limestone and hydrochloric acid. Tests are described that show CO2 extinguishing fires, and reacting with limewater, magnesium ribbons, and other substances. Uses of CO2 include in photosynthesis, fire extinguishers, preserving foods, and manufacturing other chemicals.
This document summarizes the production of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) from a saturated solution of soda ash. The process involves passing carbon dioxide gas through the saturated soda ash solution, which reacts to form sodium bicarbonate and water. The sodium bicarbonate is then filtered, centrifuged to remove water, and dried, yielding the final baking soda product. Key reactions and industrial uses are also mentioned.
Chemical industries are established to meet the needs of modern societies. The manufacturing of sodium carbonate through the Solvays process will be discussed in detail.
Sodium carbonate occurs naturally as the mineral natron and is produced commercially via the Solvay process. It crystallizes in different hydrated forms and is highly soluble in water. Sodium carbonate is used to neutralize acids, in glassmaking, and has various medical uses as an antacid and in preparing baths and solutions to treat skin conditions. The Solvay process uses salt water, limestone, and ammonia to produce sodium carbonate in a more economical way than the previous Leblanc process.
Sodium hydroxide was discovered in 1807 by Humphrey Day in England. It is a white solid compound consisting of sodium and hydroxide ions. It is produced industrially through electrolysis of brine using the Castner-Kellner or Nelson cell processes. Sodium hydroxide is very basic and has many industrial uses such as in soap production, rayon manufacturing, and petroleum products. It has important chemical properties like reacting with acids to form salts and water. Major sodium hydroxide producers in Pakistan include Sitara Chemicals, Tufail Chemicals, and ICI Pakistan.
This document discusses the reactions and properties of aliphatic alcohols. It outlines five main reactions: 1) replacement of hydrogen by sodium or other active metals to form alkoxides, with reactivity following 1o > 2o > 3o alcohols; 2) replacement of hydroxyl with halogen (Lucas test) with reactivity 3o > 2o > 1o alcohols; 3) oxidation to aldehydes and ketones using chromic acid or other oxidizing agents; 4) esterification with carboxylic acids to form esters; and 5) selective oxidation of methyl alcohol to formaldehyde using a copper catalyst.
Sodium carbonate, also known as washing soda, has the chemical formula Na2CO3. It occurs naturally as the minerals trona and nahcolite and is mainly produced commercially via the Solvay process. It has important industrial uses in glass, chemicals, detergents, and other products. The Solvay process involves purifying sodium chloride brine, precipitating sodium bicarbonate by reaction of the brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia, and thermally decomposing the bicarbonate to produce sodium carbonate. Trona deposits are also mined and processed to produce sodium carbonate.
This document summarizes information about sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), including its chemical formula, properties, common names, production methods, and uses. It occurs naturally as a crystalline dehydrate and is highly soluble in water. The most common production methods are the Leblanc process and Solvay process. Sodium carbonate has many industrial and household uses, such as in glassmaking, soap production, water softening, and cleaning products. China is currently the world's largest producer of sodium carbonate.
Some gases (Carbondioxide and Ammonia) Chapter for SEE NepalAnjan Nepal
The document discusses carbon dioxide (CO2). It provides its molecular formula (CO2), molecular weight (44 amu), and that it occurs in both free and combined states. CO2 is formed through the reaction of limestone and hydrochloric acid. Tests are described that show CO2 extinguishing fires, and reacting with limewater, magnesium ribbons, and other substances. Uses of CO2 include in photosynthesis, fire extinguishers, preserving foods, and manufacturing other chemicals.
This document summarizes the production of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) from a saturated solution of soda ash. The process involves passing carbon dioxide gas through the saturated soda ash solution, which reacts to form sodium bicarbonate and water. The sodium bicarbonate is then filtered, centrifuged to remove water, and dried, yielding the final baking soda product. Key reactions and industrial uses are also mentioned.
Chemical industries are established to meet the needs of modern societies. The manufacturing of sodium carbonate through the Solvays process will be discussed in detail.
Sodium carbonate occurs naturally as the mineral natron and is produced commercially via the Solvay process. It crystallizes in different hydrated forms and is highly soluble in water. Sodium carbonate is used to neutralize acids, in glassmaking, and has various medical uses as an antacid and in preparing baths and solutions to treat skin conditions. The Solvay process uses salt water, limestone, and ammonia to produce sodium carbonate in a more economical way than the previous Leblanc process.
Sodium hydroxide was discovered in 1807 by Humphrey Day in England. It is a white solid compound consisting of sodium and hydroxide ions. It is produced industrially through electrolysis of brine using the Castner-Kellner or Nelson cell processes. Sodium hydroxide is very basic and has many industrial uses such as in soap production, rayon manufacturing, and petroleum products. It has important chemical properties like reacting with acids to form salts and water. Major sodium hydroxide producers in Pakistan include Sitara Chemicals, Tufail Chemicals, and ICI Pakistan.
This document discusses the reactions and properties of aliphatic alcohols. It outlines five main reactions: 1) replacement of hydrogen by sodium or other active metals to form alkoxides, with reactivity following 1o > 2o > 3o alcohols; 2) replacement of hydroxyl with halogen (Lucas test) with reactivity 3o > 2o > 1o alcohols; 3) oxidation to aldehydes and ketones using chromic acid or other oxidizing agents; 4) esterification with carboxylic acids to form esters; and 5) selective oxidation of methyl alcohol to formaldehyde using a copper catalyst.
Sodium carbonate is produced through the Solvay process. In this process, brine is purified then reacted with ammonia in an ammoniation tower. Limestone is heated to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The ammoniated brine and carbon dioxide are reacted in a carbonation tower, precipitating out sodium bicarbonate. The sodium bicarbonate is then heated to produce sodium carbonate. Calcium chloride is produced as a byproduct and used to grow vegetation on purchased lands.
The document provides information about ammonia, including its molecular formula, methods of preparation, industrial production via the Haber process, properties, uses, and laboratory experiments. It discusses ammonia's preparation from ammonium salts by heating or with bases. Industrially, ammonia is made by compressing nitrogen and hydrogen at high pressure and temperature using an iron catalyst and molybdenum promoter. Ammonia is used to make fertilizers and other products.
The document discusses the extraction of metals from their ores. It begins by describing where metals are found in nature based on their reactivity. Very reactive metals like calcium are found in the sea, while less reactive metals like aluminum and zinc are found as oxides and sulfides. The least reactive metals like gold and silver are found as free elements.
It then provides examples of metal ores found in Tanzania like copper, tin, iron, gold and uranium. The extraction process involves purifying the ore through processes like dressing, calcination and roasting. Metals are then extracted through electrolysis or chemical reduction. Common extraction methods for sodium, aluminum and iron are described. Finally, the document outlines some physical and chemical
Nahco3 and na2co3 manufacturing by solvay process Usama Pervaiz
The document describes the production process of sodium carbonate (soda ash) through the Solvay process. Key raw materials include salt, limestone, coal, ammonia, and deionized water. The 7-step process involves ammonia absorption, burning limestone to produce carbon dioxide, carbonation in a Solvay tower, separation of sodium bicarbonate, thermal decomposition to sodium carbonate, production of milk lime, and regeneration of ammonia. Sodium carbonate can be classified as heavy or light forms with different properties and uses such as in glass and detergents.
This document discusses various types of salts and their properties and applications. It defines salts as ionic compounds that result from acid-base neutralization reactions. It provides examples of common salts like sodium chloride, potassium sulfate and lists their properties such as being crystalline solids with high melting/boiling points that dissolve in water and conduct electricity. It then describes specific applications of salts like sodium chloride in the Chlor-alkali process, baking soda in baking and antacids, and plaster of paris in supporting fractured bones.
The document discusses the production of ammonium chloride. It describes two main production methods: the dual-salt process and direct neutralization of ammonia with hydrochloric acid. The dual-salt process involves saturating brine with ammonia then reacting it with limestone and carbon dioxide to produce ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate in a carbonation tower. The sodium bicarbonate is separated and converted to sodium carbonate for reuse in the process. The direct neutralization method reacts anhydrous ammonia vapor directly with hydrochloric acid gas to produce high purity ammonium chloride.
Nitric acid is a strong acid that is colorless as a pure liquid but commercial samples may appear yellowish. It is highly corrosive and a strong oxidizer. Nitric acid is produced industrially via the Ostwald process, which involves ammonia oxidation over a platinum catalyst in three steps: primary oxidation to nitric oxide, secondary oxidation to nitrogen dioxide, and absorption of nitrogen dioxide in water to form nitric acid. Nitric acid has many industrial and laboratory uses including fertilizer and explosive production.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas composed of carbon and oxygen that constitutes about 0.041% of the atmosphere. It was first observed in the 17th century by Jan Baptist Van Helmont during a charcoal burning experiment. Carbon dioxide has a linear molecular shape with a bond angle of 180 degrees. It is diamagnetic with no dipole moment due to its molecular structure. Carbon dioxide is used in many applications including fire extinguishers, refrigeration, winemaking, and enhancing the hardness of metal castings. It can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid.
The document describes three methods for manufacturing oxalic acid:
1) From sodium formate by reacting sodium hydroxide and carbon monoxide to form sodium formate, then converting it to calcium oxalate and precipitating oxalic acid. Yield is 80%.
2) From propylene by oxidizing it with nitric acid in two steps to form alpha-nitratolactic acid then oxalic acid.
3) From dimethyl oxalate by producing it from methyl nitrite, then hydrolyzing it to oxalic acid.
The document also discusses some applications of oxalic acid such as in dyeing, rust removal, and cleaning, and provides details on
Lithium carbonate is a silver metal that is the lightest of the alkali metals. It was first discovered in 1817 when analyzing the mineral petalite. Lithium carbonate is commonly extracted from spodumene ores by heating them and then treating with acids to produce lithium sulfate and later lithium carbonate. It can also be extracted from brine evaporation. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder and produces a bright red flame color during flame tests.
Magnesium carbonate and lithium carbonate are inorganic salts with various applications. Magnesium carbonate is a white solid commonly obtained from mining magnesite and used as an antacid, laxative, and filler in pharmaceuticals. It reacts with acids to form magnesium chloride and carbon dioxide. Lithium carbonate is a white powder extracted from pegmatite crystals and brine to treat conditions like bipolar disorder by inhibiting irregular protein kinase C activity in the brain. It is prepared through reactions of lithium compounds with carbon dioxide or sodium carbonate. Both salts have low solubility in water.
The document summarizes information about various oxygen compounds and anesthetic gases including their production, purity testing, and assay methods. It discusses the manufacture of oxygen through fractional distillation of liquid air or electrolysis of water. Tests for purity of oxygen include checking for carbon dioxide and oxidizing substances. Assay requires at least 99% oxygen by volume. Methods are provided for the production, purity testing involving indicators, and assay of other substances like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, and hydrogen peroxide.
The chlor-alkali process is an industrial process that uses electrolysis to produce chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen from salt water. It involves passing an electric current through a brine solution to drive the following reaction: 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2. The process was first developed in the 1850s but improved in the 1890s with the mercury cell. Today, membrane and diaphragm cells are more commonly used, accounting for 60% and 14% of European production respectively. The main uses of the products are in polymers, pesticides, antiseptics, acid production, metallurgy, and the paper industry.
Sodium hydroxide is manufactured through the Kellner-Solvay process and Castner-Kellner cell process. In the Kellner-Solvay process, brine is electrolyzed between a mercury cathode and graphite anode, producing sodium amalgam at the cathode which is later treated with water to produce sodium hydroxide and regenerate the mercury. In the Castner-Kellner cell process, a vessel is divided into compartments where sodium ions are reduced at the mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam, which then reacts with hydroxyl ions in another compartment to form sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide is a white, highly alkaline and water-soluble solid with various industrial and laboratory uses such
Ammonia is produced commercially via the Haber process where nitrogen and hydrogen react over an iron catalyst at high temperatures and pressures to form ammonia. Ammonia has many industrial uses including in fertilizer production, as a cleaning agent, and in the manufacture of plastics, fibers and explosives. Sodium hydroxide is produced via electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution. It is used to make soap, as a cleaning agent, in aluminum production from bauxite ore, and in the pulp and paper industry for pulping, bleaching and pH control. Both are important industrial chemicals with wide-ranging applications.
Yes, the given reaction is a redox reaction.
Glucose is oxidised as it loses hydrogen atoms and gains oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide and water molecules. Oxygen is reduced as it gains hydrogen atoms from glucose. Since both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously, the reaction is a redox reaction.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is prepared by heating rutile or ilmenite with carbon in chlorine. It is an amphoteric oxide that dissolves in acids and alkalies. TiO2 is used as a white pigment in paints and cosmetics, as well as in manufacturing fiberglass, porcelain goods, gas mantles, and non-greaseable paper. Thorium oxide (thoria) exists in amorphous and crystalline forms and is used in gas mantles, as a refractory material, catalyst, and in medical and ceramic applications. Ammonium molybdate is prepared by dissolving molybdenum trioxide in ammonia and is used as an
This document describes the purification of soluble salts through recrystallization and the preparation of insoluble salts through precipitation reactions. It discusses physical characteristics of salt crystals such as their geometric shape and fixed angles. It then provides examples of precipitation reactions used to prepare specific insoluble salts like lead (II) sulfate, copper (II) carbonate, and barium sulfate through a double decomposition reaction between aqueous solutions of their ions. General and ionic chemical equations are given to represent these precipitation reactions.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is vital for plant life. It comprises 0.039% of the atmosphere and is produced by combustion of fossil fuels and plant matter. Carbon dioxide has various industrial uses including in food production as a leavening agent and additive, in beverages as a carbonation agent, in welding as a shielding gas, and as a refrigerant and fire extinguishing agent. It is also used in oil recovery operations by increasing oil flow from wells.
The document describes the chlor-alkali process for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide through the electrolysis of sodium chloride brine. Key aspects include:
- Sodium chloride brine is purified through processes like precipitation to remove impurities before electrolysis.
- During electrolysis, chlorine gas is produced at the anode, sodium hydroxide at the cathode, and hydrogen as a byproduct. A membrane separates the anode and cathode compartments.
- Weak brine leaving the anode contains dissolved chlorine which is removed through processes like acidification before recycling. Sodium hydroxide product is cooled and may be concentrated.
Sodium, magnesium, and aluminium react with oxygen to form ionic oxides. Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are basic due to their oxide ions and react with water to form alkaline solutions. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric as it displays both acidic and basic properties, reacting with both acids and bases. Silicon dioxide does not react with water or acids due to its covalent bonding. Phosphorus and sulphur form acidic oxides that react with water to produce acids. Chlorine forms oxides that react with water to form acids or salts.
The early atmosphere on Earth was formed by gases released from volcanic eruptions. The main gases were carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, and ammonia, with little to no oxygen. Over time, carbon dioxide levels fell as it dissolved in the oceans and was incorporated into marine organisms' shells. As plant life increased through photosynthesis, oxygen levels rose and carbon dioxide levels fell further. Rocks can provide information about the early atmosphere by analyzing their mineral composition and looking for oxide formations that indicate higher oxygen levels over time.
Sodium carbonate is produced through the Solvay process. In this process, brine is purified then reacted with ammonia in an ammoniation tower. Limestone is heated to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The ammoniated brine and carbon dioxide are reacted in a carbonation tower, precipitating out sodium bicarbonate. The sodium bicarbonate is then heated to produce sodium carbonate. Calcium chloride is produced as a byproduct and used to grow vegetation on purchased lands.
The document provides information about ammonia, including its molecular formula, methods of preparation, industrial production via the Haber process, properties, uses, and laboratory experiments. It discusses ammonia's preparation from ammonium salts by heating or with bases. Industrially, ammonia is made by compressing nitrogen and hydrogen at high pressure and temperature using an iron catalyst and molybdenum promoter. Ammonia is used to make fertilizers and other products.
The document discusses the extraction of metals from their ores. It begins by describing where metals are found in nature based on their reactivity. Very reactive metals like calcium are found in the sea, while less reactive metals like aluminum and zinc are found as oxides and sulfides. The least reactive metals like gold and silver are found as free elements.
It then provides examples of metal ores found in Tanzania like copper, tin, iron, gold and uranium. The extraction process involves purifying the ore through processes like dressing, calcination and roasting. Metals are then extracted through electrolysis or chemical reduction. Common extraction methods for sodium, aluminum and iron are described. Finally, the document outlines some physical and chemical
Nahco3 and na2co3 manufacturing by solvay process Usama Pervaiz
The document describes the production process of sodium carbonate (soda ash) through the Solvay process. Key raw materials include salt, limestone, coal, ammonia, and deionized water. The 7-step process involves ammonia absorption, burning limestone to produce carbon dioxide, carbonation in a Solvay tower, separation of sodium bicarbonate, thermal decomposition to sodium carbonate, production of milk lime, and regeneration of ammonia. Sodium carbonate can be classified as heavy or light forms with different properties and uses such as in glass and detergents.
This document discusses various types of salts and their properties and applications. It defines salts as ionic compounds that result from acid-base neutralization reactions. It provides examples of common salts like sodium chloride, potassium sulfate and lists their properties such as being crystalline solids with high melting/boiling points that dissolve in water and conduct electricity. It then describes specific applications of salts like sodium chloride in the Chlor-alkali process, baking soda in baking and antacids, and plaster of paris in supporting fractured bones.
The document discusses the production of ammonium chloride. It describes two main production methods: the dual-salt process and direct neutralization of ammonia with hydrochloric acid. The dual-salt process involves saturating brine with ammonia then reacting it with limestone and carbon dioxide to produce ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate in a carbonation tower. The sodium bicarbonate is separated and converted to sodium carbonate for reuse in the process. The direct neutralization method reacts anhydrous ammonia vapor directly with hydrochloric acid gas to produce high purity ammonium chloride.
Nitric acid is a strong acid that is colorless as a pure liquid but commercial samples may appear yellowish. It is highly corrosive and a strong oxidizer. Nitric acid is produced industrially via the Ostwald process, which involves ammonia oxidation over a platinum catalyst in three steps: primary oxidation to nitric oxide, secondary oxidation to nitrogen dioxide, and absorption of nitrogen dioxide in water to form nitric acid. Nitric acid has many industrial and laboratory uses including fertilizer and explosive production.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas composed of carbon and oxygen that constitutes about 0.041% of the atmosphere. It was first observed in the 17th century by Jan Baptist Van Helmont during a charcoal burning experiment. Carbon dioxide has a linear molecular shape with a bond angle of 180 degrees. It is diamagnetic with no dipole moment due to its molecular structure. Carbon dioxide is used in many applications including fire extinguishers, refrigeration, winemaking, and enhancing the hardness of metal castings. It can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid.
The document describes three methods for manufacturing oxalic acid:
1) From sodium formate by reacting sodium hydroxide and carbon monoxide to form sodium formate, then converting it to calcium oxalate and precipitating oxalic acid. Yield is 80%.
2) From propylene by oxidizing it with nitric acid in two steps to form alpha-nitratolactic acid then oxalic acid.
3) From dimethyl oxalate by producing it from methyl nitrite, then hydrolyzing it to oxalic acid.
The document also discusses some applications of oxalic acid such as in dyeing, rust removal, and cleaning, and provides details on
Lithium carbonate is a silver metal that is the lightest of the alkali metals. It was first discovered in 1817 when analyzing the mineral petalite. Lithium carbonate is commonly extracted from spodumene ores by heating them and then treating with acids to produce lithium sulfate and later lithium carbonate. It can also be extracted from brine evaporation. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder and produces a bright red flame color during flame tests.
Magnesium carbonate and lithium carbonate are inorganic salts with various applications. Magnesium carbonate is a white solid commonly obtained from mining magnesite and used as an antacid, laxative, and filler in pharmaceuticals. It reacts with acids to form magnesium chloride and carbon dioxide. Lithium carbonate is a white powder extracted from pegmatite crystals and brine to treat conditions like bipolar disorder by inhibiting irregular protein kinase C activity in the brain. It is prepared through reactions of lithium compounds with carbon dioxide or sodium carbonate. Both salts have low solubility in water.
The document summarizes information about various oxygen compounds and anesthetic gases including their production, purity testing, and assay methods. It discusses the manufacture of oxygen through fractional distillation of liquid air or electrolysis of water. Tests for purity of oxygen include checking for carbon dioxide and oxidizing substances. Assay requires at least 99% oxygen by volume. Methods are provided for the production, purity testing involving indicators, and assay of other substances like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, and hydrogen peroxide.
The chlor-alkali process is an industrial process that uses electrolysis to produce chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen from salt water. It involves passing an electric current through a brine solution to drive the following reaction: 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2. The process was first developed in the 1850s but improved in the 1890s with the mercury cell. Today, membrane and diaphragm cells are more commonly used, accounting for 60% and 14% of European production respectively. The main uses of the products are in polymers, pesticides, antiseptics, acid production, metallurgy, and the paper industry.
Sodium hydroxide is manufactured through the Kellner-Solvay process and Castner-Kellner cell process. In the Kellner-Solvay process, brine is electrolyzed between a mercury cathode and graphite anode, producing sodium amalgam at the cathode which is later treated with water to produce sodium hydroxide and regenerate the mercury. In the Castner-Kellner cell process, a vessel is divided into compartments where sodium ions are reduced at the mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam, which then reacts with hydroxyl ions in another compartment to form sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide is a white, highly alkaline and water-soluble solid with various industrial and laboratory uses such
Ammonia is produced commercially via the Haber process where nitrogen and hydrogen react over an iron catalyst at high temperatures and pressures to form ammonia. Ammonia has many industrial uses including in fertilizer production, as a cleaning agent, and in the manufacture of plastics, fibers and explosives. Sodium hydroxide is produced via electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution. It is used to make soap, as a cleaning agent, in aluminum production from bauxite ore, and in the pulp and paper industry for pulping, bleaching and pH control. Both are important industrial chemicals with wide-ranging applications.
Yes, the given reaction is a redox reaction.
Glucose is oxidised as it loses hydrogen atoms and gains oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide and water molecules. Oxygen is reduced as it gains hydrogen atoms from glucose. Since both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously, the reaction is a redox reaction.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is prepared by heating rutile or ilmenite with carbon in chlorine. It is an amphoteric oxide that dissolves in acids and alkalies. TiO2 is used as a white pigment in paints and cosmetics, as well as in manufacturing fiberglass, porcelain goods, gas mantles, and non-greaseable paper. Thorium oxide (thoria) exists in amorphous and crystalline forms and is used in gas mantles, as a refractory material, catalyst, and in medical and ceramic applications. Ammonium molybdate is prepared by dissolving molybdenum trioxide in ammonia and is used as an
This document describes the purification of soluble salts through recrystallization and the preparation of insoluble salts through precipitation reactions. It discusses physical characteristics of salt crystals such as their geometric shape and fixed angles. It then provides examples of precipitation reactions used to prepare specific insoluble salts like lead (II) sulfate, copper (II) carbonate, and barium sulfate through a double decomposition reaction between aqueous solutions of their ions. General and ionic chemical equations are given to represent these precipitation reactions.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is vital for plant life. It comprises 0.039% of the atmosphere and is produced by combustion of fossil fuels and plant matter. Carbon dioxide has various industrial uses including in food production as a leavening agent and additive, in beverages as a carbonation agent, in welding as a shielding gas, and as a refrigerant and fire extinguishing agent. It is also used in oil recovery operations by increasing oil flow from wells.
The document describes the chlor-alkali process for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide through the electrolysis of sodium chloride brine. Key aspects include:
- Sodium chloride brine is purified through processes like precipitation to remove impurities before electrolysis.
- During electrolysis, chlorine gas is produced at the anode, sodium hydroxide at the cathode, and hydrogen as a byproduct. A membrane separates the anode and cathode compartments.
- Weak brine leaving the anode contains dissolved chlorine which is removed through processes like acidification before recycling. Sodium hydroxide product is cooled and may be concentrated.
Sodium, magnesium, and aluminium react with oxygen to form ionic oxides. Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are basic due to their oxide ions and react with water to form alkaline solutions. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric as it displays both acidic and basic properties, reacting with both acids and bases. Silicon dioxide does not react with water or acids due to its covalent bonding. Phosphorus and sulphur form acidic oxides that react with water to produce acids. Chlorine forms oxides that react with water to form acids or salts.
The early atmosphere on Earth was formed by gases released from volcanic eruptions. The main gases were carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, and ammonia, with little to no oxygen. Over time, carbon dioxide levels fell as it dissolved in the oceans and was incorporated into marine organisms' shells. As plant life increased through photosynthesis, oxygen levels rose and carbon dioxide levels fell further. Rocks can provide information about the early atmosphere by analyzing their mineral composition and looking for oxide formations that indicate higher oxygen levels over time.
The document discusses different types of metal compounds including oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates, and chlorides. It describes methods of preparing these compounds such as direct combination of metals with oxygen or other reactants, or reactions of metal salts with bases or acids. The properties, reactions and uses of these compounds are also outlined. For example, metal oxides can be basic, acidic, or amphoteric and are used to form salts or in manufacturing. Hydroxides vary in solubility depending on the metal's reactivity and react with acids to form salts. Carbonates and nitrates similarly react with acids.
This document discusses acids, bases, and salts. It defines acids as compounds that produce hydrogen ions in water, and defines bases as oxides or hydroxides of metals that react with acids to form salts and water. It describes properties of acids such as sour taste and turning litmus red, and properties of bases such as bitter taste and turning litmus blue. The document also discusses the preparation of different types of salts through various reactions, and how their properties depend on whether they are soluble or insoluble in water.
The document summarizes the general characteristics and properties of compounds of alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. It discusses their oxides, hydroxides, halides, oxo-acids, and carbonates. Key points include that the compounds are generally ionic in nature, their physical properties change systematically down the groups (e.g. melting points decrease), and they are generally soluble with high negative enthalpies of formation. Sodium carbonate prepared by the Solvay process is discussed as an important sodium compound used for water softening, laundering, and other industrial applications.
This document discusses different types of metal oxides and methods for preparing soluble salts. It describes basic oxides, amphoteric oxides, and acidic oxides. It also outlines soluble and insoluble salts. Three methods are provided for preparing soluble salts: the displacement method using reactive metals, the neutralization method between an acid and base, and the titration method. The precipitation method is described for making insoluble salts. Key steps and observations are highlighted for correctly carrying out these preparation reactions.
This document summarizes different types of metal oxides and methods for preparing soluble and insoluble salts. It describes three main methods:
1. The displacement method uses a reactive metal like magnesium to displace hydrogen from an acid, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas and producing a salt solution.
2. The neutralization method reacts an acid with a metal oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate. This produces a salt, water, and sometimes carbon dioxide. Copper sulfate can be made from copper oxide and sulfuric acid or copper carbonate and sulfuric acid.
3. The titration method precisely determines the amounts of base and acid needed to produce a salt without excess reactants. Sodium chloride can be
Carbonates are usually insoluble except for alkali metals. Carbonates decompose when heated to form oxides and carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate (limestone) decomposes to form calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide. All carbonates react with acids to form salts, water and carbon dioxide. Limestone is used to manufacture cement, iron, and lime. Lime is made by heating limestone to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Slaked lime is formed when water is added to calcium oxide and is used to neutralize acidic soils and wastes. Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky by forming insoluble calcium carbonate.
Carbon dioxide was discovered by Van Helmont and proved to be an oxide of carbon by Antoine Lavoisier. It can be prepared by heating carbon or fuels like methane, or by heating carbonates like calcium carbonate. It is a colorless, odorless gas that is heavier than air and turns limewater milky. It is used in carbonated drinks, fire extinguishers, by plants during photosynthesis, and to preserve foods like meat and vegetables.
This document provides information about acids, bases, salts, and the pH scale. It defines acids as substances that release hydrogen ions in solution, bases as substances that release hydroxide ions in solution, and salts as ionic compounds composed of metallic and nonmetallic ions. Key properties of acids, bases, and salts are described such as how they affect litmus paper and their uses. Methods of preparing acids, bases, and salts are also summarized. Finally, the pH scale is defined as a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solutions.
This document discusses important compounds of sodium including sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, and sodium hydroxide. Sodium carbonate is produced via the Solvay process and is used for water softening, laundering, and cleaning. Sodium chloride is obtained from sea water or salt mines and is used as table salt. Sodium hydroxide is produced commercially via electrolysis of sodium chloride and is used to make soap, paper, and chemicals.
Experiment 15. Reactions of carboxylic acidsAlex Rabanes
This document describes an experiment involving reactions of carboxylic acids. It includes drawing structural formulas of common carboxylic acids, writing equations for reactions like ionization and with NaOH and NaHCO3. Results show trichloroacetic acid is most acidic due to chlorine electron withdrawal. Solubility depends on structure. Carboxylic acids are resistant to oxidation but some can oxidize. Evidence of esterification is change in odor and insolubility in water.
Acids, bases and salts according to the syllabus of CAIE and IGCSEjaveriakhan123
This document provides information about acids and bases:
- Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions in water and have properties like a sour taste and turning litmus paper red. Strong acids fully ionize in water while weak acids only partially ionize.
- Bases include metal oxides and hydroxides. Soluble bases are called alkalis. Bases react with acids to produce salt and water in a neutralization reaction.
- Important acids and bases have many applications from batteries to cleaning to food preservation. Processes like the Contact Process are used industrially to produce acids like sulfuric acid.
Water chemistry using engineering chemistry UNIT-1.pdfratankale0401
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2. Structure
Diamond has giant atomic structure.
In diamond, each carbon atom uses all its four
valency electrons to form covalent bonds with
four other carbon atoms. This results into a
three dimensional giant atomic structure with
very high melting point. So diamond is the
hardest substance known on earth.
Since carbon uses all its four valency electrons,
diamond does not conduct electricity.
3.
4. Physical properties
It is the hardest substance known
It is colourless and transparent with a brilliant
appearance.
It is denser than graphite.
It is a poor conductor of electricity.
5.
6.
7. Uses
It is used to cut glass and make tips of drilling
machines because it is very hard.
Because of its brilliant appearance, it is used to
make jewellery.
Because of its brightness, it is used to make
laser beams.
10. Structure
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to
three others by covalent bonds forming
hexagonal layers.
The fourth valency electron is delocalised and is
free to move along the layers. Therefore
graphite conducts electricity along its layers.
The layers are held by weak Van der Waals
forces and can slide over each other. Therefore
graphite is soft.
11. Physical properties
It conducts electricity.
It is soft
It has a density of 2.2g/
Uses of graphite:
It is used as a lubricant since it is soft.
It is used as electrodes in electrolysis since it is a
good conductor of electricity.
It is used in making lead pencils.
13. Combustion
Carbon burns in excess oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
In a limited supply of oxygen, incomplete
combustion occurs and carbonmonoxide is
produced.
14. Carbon as a reducing agent
Carbon readily removes oxygen from oxides of
zinc and other metal oxides below zinc in the
activity series and itself oxidized to
carbondioxide.
15. Carbon as a reducing agent
Carbon also reduces concentrated nitric acid to
nitrogen dioxide and concentrated sulphuric
acid to sulphur dioxide.
16. If steam is blown through red hot charcoal, a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is
obtained. This mixture is called water gas.
20. Some calcium carbonate is placed into the flask
and the apparatus is assembled as shown in the
diagram above.
Dilute hydrochloric acid is poured on to the
calcium carbonate through a dropping funnel
(or a thistle funnel) until all the calcium
carbonate is covered.
Effervescence of a colourless gas (carbon
dioxide) occurs and it is collected over
water since it slightly soluble in it.
21. If required dry, the gas is passed through water
to absorb any traces of hydrochloric acid. It is
then passed through concentrated sulphuric
acid to dry it.
The gas is then collected by downward delivery
since it is denser than air.
Equation of the reaction that takes place in the
flask:
22. In general, carbonates react with acids to form
carbon dioxide gas and water.
23. Note:
Dilute sulphuric acid is not used to prepare
carbon dioxide because it reacts with the
calcium carbonate to form insoluble calcium
sulphate, which prevents the acid from contact
with the calcium carbonate and the reaction
soon stops.
Anhydrous calcium chloride may be as a drying
agent instead of sulphuric acid.
24. If the gas is not required dry, it can be collected
over water since it is slightly soluble in water.
Other reactions which can produce carbon
dioxide include: Combustion of hydrocarbons,
Fermentation, Respiration, Action of heat on
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
25. Test for carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide gas turns limewater milky.
Physical properties of carbon dioxide.
It is a colourless, odourless, and has a sharp
pleasant taste gas.
It is denser than air.
It is slightly soluble in water forming a weak
carbonic acid solution. This solution turns blue
litmus paper pink showing that it is a weak acid.
26. Carbon dioxide
Under high pressure carbon dioxide is quite
soluble and that is why it is used in fizzy
drinks such as sodas.
Chemical properties.
(a) Combustion
Carbon dioxide does not burn or support
burning.
27. Properties of carbon dioxide
(b) With magnesium.
Lower burning magnesium ribbon into a gas
jar of carbon dioxide
Observation:
It continues to burn with sputtering
forming black specks of carbon on the
sides of the jar, together with white ash of
magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
.
28. (c) Reaction with calcium hydroxide solution.
When carbon dioxide is bubbled through lime water, a white
precipitate is formed due to the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) +H2O (l)
This is used as a test for carbon dioxide.
However, when excess carbon dioxide is bubbled through
limewater, a colourless solution is obtained due to the formation of
soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CO2(g) +CaCO3(s) +H2O ) Ca(HCO3) (aq)
29. (d) Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution.
When the gas is bubbled through a fairly
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, the
solution is observed to remain colourless at first
but a white precipitate is formed with excess
carbon dioxide.
The solution remains colourless at first due to the
formation soluble sodium carbonate.
With excess carbon dioxide, sodium hydrogen
carbonate is formed, which is just slightly soluble.
30. Uses of carbon dioxide:
•It is used in fire extinguishers since it does not
support burning and it is denser than air.
•It is used as a preservative in fizzy (aerated
drinks) e.g. sodas.
•Used as a refrigerant (especially dry ice or solid
carbon dioxide).
•Used in the manufacture of baking powder.
•Used as a food preservative e.g. in dairy
products, fruits and vegetables.
32. Occurrence
Potassium carbonate and sodium
carbonate occur naturally in salty lakes
e.g. L. Katwe.
Calcium and magnesium carbonates occur
in rocks.
Carbonates are salts derived from
carbonic acid.
33. Properties
Solubility
All carbonates are insoluble in water
except potassium carbonate, sodium
carbonate and ammonium carbonate.
There are only three solid hydrogen
carbonates (sodium hydrogen carbonate,
potassium hydrogen carbonate and
ammonium hydrogen carbonate) and are
all soluble in water except sodium
hydrogen carbonate which is slightly
soluble.
34. Action of heat
Carbonates of potassium, sodium are not
decomposed by heat. However, when their
hydrated carbonates are heated, they lose
their water of crystallization e.g.
All other metal carbonates decompose when
heated forming respective metal oxides and a
gas that turns lime water milky (carbon
dioxide)
35. Action of heat
Ammonium carbonate sublimes when
heated to give ammonia gas, water vapour
and carbon dioxide.
Aluminium carbonate does not exist.
36. Action of heat
Hydrogen carbonates.
All hydrogen carbonates decompose
when heated to give the corresponding
carbonates, water vapour and carbon
dioxide e.g.
37. Reaction with acids
Both carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
react with dilute acids to liberate carbon
dioxide gas, water and the corresponding
salt i.e.
38. Reaction with acids
The following reactions proceed at very
slow rate and stop soon because in each
case the resulting salt is insoluble. These
salts form a coating around the carbonate
stopping any further reaction.
Dilute nitric acid reacts with all
carbonates to produce soluble salts
(nitrates).
39. Test for carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
To the unknown solid, add a little dilute acid
e.g. nitric acid.
Observation.
Bubbles of a colourless gas that turns
calcium hydroxide solution (lime water)
milky.
Conclusion
This shows that a carbonate or hydrogen
carbonate is present.
40. Test for carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
To about 1-2cm3 of the solution of the
unknown add 2-3 drops of lead(II) nitrate
solution followed by dilute nitric acid.
Observation
A white precipitate that dissolves in nitric
acid with effervescence of a colourless gas
that turns lime water milky confirms the
presence of a carbonate i.e.
41. Test for carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Alternatively, barium nitrate or barium
chloride can be used in place of lead(II)
nitrate.
42. Distinguishing between carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates
To about 1-2cm3 of the solution of the
unknown, add a little magnesium sulphate
solution.
Observations.
A white precipitate shows presence of a
carbonate.
No observable change shows
presence of a hydrogen carbonate.
43. SODIUM CARBONATE
Laboratory preparation.
Bubble carbon dioxide gas through a
fairly concentrated solution of sodium
hydroxide. Sodium carbonate solution is
formed.
Pass excess carbon dioxide through the
above mixture. A white precipitate of
sodium hydrogen carbonate is formed.
44. SODIUM CARBONATE
Laboratory preparation.
Filter off the white precipitate, wash with
distilled water and dry it.
The dry sodium hydrogen carbonate is
then heated to a constant mass. This
leaves a white powder of sodium
carbonate.
45. SODIUM CARBONATE
Commercial preparation (Solvay Process)
A concentrated solution of sodium
chloride (brine) is slowly dropped down a
tower up which ammonia is moving.
The brine-ammonia mixture is then made
to pass down a second tower up which
carbon dioxide is moving. Ammonium
hydrogen carbonate is formed.
46. SODIUM CARBONATE
Commercial preparation (Solvay Process)
The ammonium hydrogen carbonate so
formed quickly reacts with excess brine to
form a white precipitate of sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
The sodium hydrogen carbonate is then
filtered off, washed, dried and then
heated to a constant mass.
47. Uses of sodium carbonate
In the manufacture of glass.
It is a constituent of many dry soap
powders.
Used in softening of water.
Used in the manufacture of sodium
hydroxide (caustic soda).
48. Properties of sodium carbonate
Anhydrous sodium carbonate is a white
powder while hydrated sodium carbonate
is a white crystalline solid.
A solution of sodium carbonate turns red
litmus to blue. This is because sodium
carbonate reacts with water to form weak
carbonic acid and a strongly alkaline
sodium hydroxide.
49. Properties of sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate is not decomposed by
heat but if hydrated, It loses its water of
crystallization.
Hydrated sodium carbonate is
efflorescent. When left exposed to the
atmosphere, the translucent crystal is
coated with a white powder due to loss of
water of crystallization.
53. HARD WATER
This is the water that does not readily
form lather with soap due to presence of
dissolved calcium salts or magnesium
salts.
54. HARD WATER
How water becomes hard.
When it rains, water passes through the
atmosphere, dissolves carbon dioxide
forming weak carbonic acid solution.
As the acidic solution passes through the
rocks, it dissolves calcium carbonate or
magnesium carbonate from the rocks
forming calcium hydrogen carbonate or
magnesium hydrogen carbonate. This makes
water to have temporary hardness.
If rain water passes through rocks containing
these calcium sulphate, some of them dissolve in
water causing it to be hard water .
55. HARD WATER
Action of soap on hard water.
Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of
stearic acid. It has the simple formula
NaSt.
Once dissolved in water, soap reacts with
the calcium or magnesium ions in hard
water to form a dirty white precipitate
called scum.
56. HARD WATER
Action of soap on hard water.
Therefore soap will only form a stable
lather after all the calcium or magnesium
ions are removed by the reaction above.
This leads to wastage of soap.
57. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Temporary hard water.
Permanent hard water.
Temporary hard water
This is the type of water that can be
softened by boiling.
It is caused by presence of dissolved
magnesium hydrogen carbonate or
calcium hydrogen carbonate in water.
58. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of temporary hardness.
Boiling
Boiling decomposes soluble hydrogen
carbonates to insoluble carbonates that
can be removed from water as
precipitates.
59. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of temporary hardness.
Addition of sodium carbonate (washing
soda).
Addition of calculated amount of calcium
hydroxide (slaked lime)
60. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of temporary hardness.
Addition of aqueous ammonia.
Any other methods that remove permanent
hardness.
61. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Permanent hard water
This is the type of hard water that cannot
be made soft by boiling.
It is caused by the presence of dissolved
calcium sulphate or magnesium sulphate
(or chlorides of magnesium and calcium)
in the water.
62. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of permanent hardness
Distillation
Addition of sodium carbonate solution
(washing soda)
Sodium carbonate reacts with calcium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate to form
insoluble carbonates
63. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of permanent hardness
Ion exchange method (permutit).
Calcium or magnesium ions in hard water
can be exchanged with sodium ions by
using a suitable ion exchange material.
Two common ion exchange materials are
zeolite and permutit.
Zeolite is naturally occurring sodium aluminium
silicate and permutit is its artificial form.
Zeolite and permutit can be simply represented
as Na2Y or Na2X.
64. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of permanent hardness
Ion exchange method (permutit).
This method can also be called double
decomposition.
65. TYPES OF HARD WATER
Removal of permanent hardness
Using detergents.
Detergents form lather easily with hard
water.
Their reaction does not produce scum
since the calcium and magnesium
compounds formed in this case are
soluble.
Detergents have an advantage over
soap because they do not form scum
with hard water.
66. Activity
You are provided with three water samples X, Y and Z and
soap solution.
(a) Add 2cm3 of soap solution to water sample X,
Shake. State what is observed.
(b) Repeat the procedure for Samples Y and Z. Note
your observations.
(c) Heat about 5cm3 of samples Y and Z in a boiling tube,
allow to cool. Add 2cm3 of soap solution to the boiled
water sample Y and X, Shake. State what is observed.
1. Giving reasons, which of the water samples X, Y and Z is
(i) Temporary hard water.
(ii) Permanent hard water
(iii) Soft water.
67. ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
Provide calcium which is essential for
growth of bones and teeth.
It helps to form healthy animal shells and
eggs.
Does not dissolve lead from lead pipes
thus can be transported using lead pipes.
Used in brewing industry.
Contains magnesium which is important
during photosynthesis.
68. DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
Leads to wastage of soap.
Leaves dirty marks on clothes.
Forms fur in kettles and pans which is a
bad conductor of heat.
Causes boiler scale.
Fur caused by hard water builds up scale
in boiler pipes. Boiler pipes may get
blocked causing serious accidents.
69. QUESTIONS
1(a) Name the ions that cause hardness in
water.
(b) Explain how water becomes hard.
(c) State two advantages of hard water.
(d) Write an equation to show how sodium
carbonate removes hardness from water
2. (a) Define the term allotropy.
(b) Give one example of an element other
than carbon which shows allotropy.
(c) Describe briefly the structure of graphite.
70. QUESTIONS
(d) State two differences between graphite
and diamond.
(e) Describe how you would show by a
chemical test that graphite is made up of
carbon atom.
3.Carbon dioxide is prepared in the
laboratory by action of dilute hydrochloric
acid on calcium carbonate and the gas
passed through water and finally through
concentrated sulphuric acid before it is
collected by downward delivery.
71. QUESTIONS
a) Why is the gas passed through;
i. Water
ii. concentrated sulphuric acid.
b) Which property of the gas enables it to be collected by
the above method.
c) Give reason why dilute sulphuric acid cannot not be
used to replace dilute hydrochloric acid in the above
method.
d) Draw a laboratory set up of the above method of
preparation of carbondioxide. Write the equation for the
reaction that takes place in the flask.