Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that can be applied to a number of
materials including aluminium, magnesium, copper and steels. A number of researches have been conducted in
Friction Stir Welding of steels and it is the focus of this paper to make a comprehensive review of the work that
has been done. Ultra-low carbon steels, low carbon steels, medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and ultrahigh
carbon steels have been considered and several aspects of FSW of steels have been outlined. These are
tools, mechanical properties and microstructure. It was determined that carbon content, welding speed as well
as rotational speed affect both mechanical properties and microstructure of the joint.
Through this paper an attempt is made to study and review a special welding technology of friction stir welding (FSW) which is a solid-state joining process. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a recent advanced technique, invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991, that utilizes a nonconsumable rotating welding tool to generate frictional heat and plastic deformation at the welding location; thereby, affecting the formation of a joint while the material is in the solid state. In particular, FSW can be used to join high-strength aerospace aluminum alloys and other high temperature metallic alloys that are difficult to weld by conventional fusion welding method. FSW is considered to be the most significant development in metal joining process in a decade The comprehensive body of knowledge that has built up with respect to the friction stir welding (FSW) of aluminum alloys. This study addresses the current state of understanding and development of the FSW process. The principles of weld formation, welding parameters, design principles, including metal flow and thermal history, before discussing how process parameters affect the weld properties Danail Abdullah"A Review of Friction Stirs Welding" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd124.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/124/a-review-of-friction-stirs-welding/danail-abdullah
Study on Influence of heat treatment on Tribological properties of mild steeldbpublications
A study was made on the effect of heat treatment upon the mild steel. Total six samples were prepared for each test (hardness test, tensile test, microstructure test and wear test) from those two was tested as received and rest four were subjected to different heat treatment that are annealing and normalizing (heated on a temperature of 850 degree Celsius). The hardness of all sample was measured by Rockwell hardness testing machine. Wear measurement was done on pin-on disc wear machine. Tensometer was used to find out the ultimate stress and strain of the sample. The result of tensile test showed that the strength is decreased by heat treating and the surface hardness is also decreased by heat treatment. Microstructure of the mild steel specimens shows the grain boundary of the particles and the content of % of carbon present. It justifies the experimental results of tensile test and hardness test. Surface Hardness is the measure of resistance that any material applies. As the specimen gets soft on treating the hardness also gets decreased. Tensile strength of any specimen is specified as how much stress the material can withstand before breaking. As the metal gets soft after heat treatment the load required for breaking goes on decreasing. Wear test is carried out to see the variation in wear measurement and coefficient of friction as the mesh size of paper are varied. More soft the surface of material is more wear is seen and vice-versa.
Fatigue Performance in Grinding and Turning: An OverviewIJMER
This paper analysis the influence of Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM), Turning and Grinding on
fatigue performance of Fe250. Surface condition has a strong effect on fatigue life, and that most surfaces
produced by conventional manufacturing operations such as machining and forging have poor fatigue
behavior than polished surfaces commonly used for laboratory specimens. It is found that the surfaces
produced with different machining process and having the same surface roughness having different fatigue
performances. High –cycle fatigue data was obtained for Fe 250 using three types of machining process
viz, AFM, Turning and Grinding .S-N curve is plotted for the samples obtained with all the three process. It
was found that the samples produced with AFM having the highest fatigue life.
Comparison of Fatigue Characteristic for AISI 1039 Steel with Surface Treatmentijceronline
Wear and fatigue resistance in steel components used in various industries can be improved by surface treatments. Coatings systems which are used for improving the mechanical properties, generally, decreased the components fatigue life due to micro cracks, that propagate through the substrate , it is possible to improve the fatigue resistance of a component by the application of shot peening treatment, whose compressive residual stresses delay or eliminate the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. The aim of this study is to obtain the fatigue limit of untreated, shot peened, and hard chromium coating of medium carbon steel AISI 1039 and comparison between them. Fatigue tests were carried out using small samples with 4 mm diameter, with hard chromium layer of (47.1) µm thick. Rotating-bending fatigue test was carried out on samples after shot peening with steel balls of about 20 minutes peening time. Experimental results showed that hard chromium electroplating decreased the fatigue life and fatigue limit in comparison with the uncoated steel. As the highest thickness for coating was 23µm. On the other hand, Shot peening Results indicated that the fatigue strengths of samples are increased and the highest fatigue limit was (298.566Mpa) after treated the samples by shot peening for 20 minutes.
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
Through this paper an attempt is made to study and review a special welding technology of friction stir welding (FSW) which is a solid-state joining process. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a recent advanced technique, invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991, that utilizes a nonconsumable rotating welding tool to generate frictional heat and plastic deformation at the welding location; thereby, affecting the formation of a joint while the material is in the solid state. In particular, FSW can be used to join high-strength aerospace aluminum alloys and other high temperature metallic alloys that are difficult to weld by conventional fusion welding method. FSW is considered to be the most significant development in metal joining process in a decade The comprehensive body of knowledge that has built up with respect to the friction stir welding (FSW) of aluminum alloys. This study addresses the current state of understanding and development of the FSW process. The principles of weld formation, welding parameters, design principles, including metal flow and thermal history, before discussing how process parameters affect the weld properties Danail Abdullah"A Review of Friction Stirs Welding" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd124.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/124/a-review-of-friction-stirs-welding/danail-abdullah
Study on Influence of heat treatment on Tribological properties of mild steeldbpublications
A study was made on the effect of heat treatment upon the mild steel. Total six samples were prepared for each test (hardness test, tensile test, microstructure test and wear test) from those two was tested as received and rest four were subjected to different heat treatment that are annealing and normalizing (heated on a temperature of 850 degree Celsius). The hardness of all sample was measured by Rockwell hardness testing machine. Wear measurement was done on pin-on disc wear machine. Tensometer was used to find out the ultimate stress and strain of the sample. The result of tensile test showed that the strength is decreased by heat treating and the surface hardness is also decreased by heat treatment. Microstructure of the mild steel specimens shows the grain boundary of the particles and the content of % of carbon present. It justifies the experimental results of tensile test and hardness test. Surface Hardness is the measure of resistance that any material applies. As the specimen gets soft on treating the hardness also gets decreased. Tensile strength of any specimen is specified as how much stress the material can withstand before breaking. As the metal gets soft after heat treatment the load required for breaking goes on decreasing. Wear test is carried out to see the variation in wear measurement and coefficient of friction as the mesh size of paper are varied. More soft the surface of material is more wear is seen and vice-versa.
Fatigue Performance in Grinding and Turning: An OverviewIJMER
This paper analysis the influence of Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM), Turning and Grinding on
fatigue performance of Fe250. Surface condition has a strong effect on fatigue life, and that most surfaces
produced by conventional manufacturing operations such as machining and forging have poor fatigue
behavior than polished surfaces commonly used for laboratory specimens. It is found that the surfaces
produced with different machining process and having the same surface roughness having different fatigue
performances. High –cycle fatigue data was obtained for Fe 250 using three types of machining process
viz, AFM, Turning and Grinding .S-N curve is plotted for the samples obtained with all the three process. It
was found that the samples produced with AFM having the highest fatigue life.
Comparison of Fatigue Characteristic for AISI 1039 Steel with Surface Treatmentijceronline
Wear and fatigue resistance in steel components used in various industries can be improved by surface treatments. Coatings systems which are used for improving the mechanical properties, generally, decreased the components fatigue life due to micro cracks, that propagate through the substrate , it is possible to improve the fatigue resistance of a component by the application of shot peening treatment, whose compressive residual stresses delay or eliminate the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. The aim of this study is to obtain the fatigue limit of untreated, shot peened, and hard chromium coating of medium carbon steel AISI 1039 and comparison between them. Fatigue tests were carried out using small samples with 4 mm diameter, with hard chromium layer of (47.1) µm thick. Rotating-bending fatigue test was carried out on samples after shot peening with steel balls of about 20 minutes peening time. Experimental results showed that hard chromium electroplating decreased the fatigue life and fatigue limit in comparison with the uncoated steel. As the highest thickness for coating was 23µm. On the other hand, Shot peening Results indicated that the fatigue strengths of samples are increased and the highest fatigue limit was (298.566Mpa) after treated the samples by shot peening for 20 minutes.
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
The Influence of Shot Angle Variation at the Process of Dry Shot Peening to t...IJAEMSJORNAL
AISI 316L is the austenitic stainless steel type that widely used in biomedical implant and artificial organs. This material’s cannot be hardened by heat treatment but the mechanical strength could be increased by cold working process. Dry shot peening is the one of cold working process in which the surface specimen bombarded with spherical media called shot to produce a compressive residual stress layer and modify mechanical properties of metal’s surface. The objectives of this research are to investigate the effect of shot angle variation of dry shot peening process on the surface roughness and corrosion resistance of AISI 316L.
A Review on Mechanical and Wear Properties of Heat Treated SteelIJSRD
This Review Paper describes effects of heat treatment on various material by varying process parameters and by using different types of heat treatment process. The heat treatment includes heating & cooling operations or the sequence of two or more such operations applied to any material in order to modify metallurgical structure and alter its physical, mechanical and chemical properties. This Review paper shows progress and research in the field of heat treatment process. Different types of heat treatment processes such as annealing, normalising, nitriding, hardening, tempering carburising used & available in recent time. This paper deals with important progress work on heat treatment and its process parameters.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
Mechanical Behaviour of AA 6061-Ca2SiO3 Compositeijtsrd
The advantage of composite materials over non alloy virgin metals has been on the front burner in the engineering materials sphere. To this ends, various reinforcement materials are constantly been mixed with metal matrix to form new composite materials. Ca2SiO3 is a ceramic material which finds application in medicine, heat and noise insulation, acid remediation, cement production etc. since it possesses qualities needed for the formation of composites, and is largely not researched on, this study aimed to characterize the mechanical properties of the AA 6061 Ca2SiO3 composite for different composition of percentage mix, and to establish a model that would predict the UTS for known values of percentage mix and load. Result of the study shows that 6 Ca2SiO3 - 94 AA 6061 and 24 Ca2SiO3 - 76 AA 6061 possessed the highest modulus of elasticity and are stiffer while 2 Ca2SiO3 - 98 AA 6061 mix had the lowest modulus of elasticity, and is more ductile than other composition mix. Also, it was observed that addition of Ca2SiO3 to AA 6061 T4 greatly improves its mechanical properties and96.43 of the variations in stress experienced by various percentage composition of the composite mix can be explained by the developed model. B. C. Chukwudi | B. M. Ogunedo "Mechanical Behaviour of AA 6061-Ca2SiO3 Composite" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47596.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/47596/mechanical-behaviour-of-aa-6061-ca2sio3-composite/b-c-chukwudi
Effect Of Process Parameters On Mechanical Properties Of Friction Stir.Welded...IJERA Editor
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an advance joining process for different similar and dissimilar materials. It is
commonly used for joining of Aluminum alloys. However it is necessary to overcome some challenges for its
wide-spread uses. Tool design and the selection of process parameters are critical issues in the usage of this
process. This study focuses on the process parameters that is required for producing effective friction stir
welding of two similar aluminum alloys (AA6101T6 to AA6101T6) and dissimilar Aluminum alloys
(AA6101T6 alloy to AA6351T6) . Three different tool diameters such as 20 mm, 25 mm and 30 mm with three
different tool rotational speeds such as 600 rpm, 800 rpm and 1200 rpm have been used to weld the joints. The
welded samples were tested for mechanical properties as well as microstructure. It was observed that 30 mm
tool gives better weld quality for friction stir welding of similar aluminum alloy but 25 mm tool with 1200 rpm
rotational speed gave satisfactory weld quality for friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys. It is one
of the important welding process that can adopted for welding of aluminum alloys with excellent mechanical
properties. The results were confirmed by further experiments.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
A study on characterization of Al-18%Si alloy by centrifuge castingdbpublications
Aluminum-silicon alloy are characterized by light weight, good strength –to-weight ratio, ease of fabrication of at reasonable cost, high strength at elevated temperature, good thermal conductivity, excellent castability, good weldability, excellent corrosion and wear resistance property. Thus, these types of alloys are well suited for automotive industries, aerospace structural and military applications. In centrifuge casting solidification rate is faster compared to gravity casting, but still solidification depends on various process parameters like, cooling temperature of molten metal, rotational speed of the die and also wall thickness of die. In centrifuge casting the silicon deposition in aluminum varies from top to bottom. Here Al-Si functionally graded material is used and developed under centrifuge casting. The method used in this work to produce functionally graded material is totally different from other centrifugal casting which helped in producing solid cylindrical parts. This report describes about mechanical characterization of Al-18%Si at different temperature. At 950°C casting shows good ultimate tensile strength and harder metal compared to other casting.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
VOLUME-7 ISSUE-8, AUGUST 2019 , International Journal of Research in Advent Technology (IJRAT) , ISSN: 2321-9637 (Online) Published By: MG Aricent Pvt Ltd
Characterization of Graphite and Zirconium Oxide on Al 7075 Metal Matrix Comp...ijtsrd
This work investigates the mechanical properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites reinforced with Zirconium Oxide and Graphite. The composite material has been prepared by Stir casting technique. Al 7075 as matrix metal, Zirconium oxide and graphite as reinforcements. Zirconium Oxide and Graphite both have been mixed in different proportions in the Aluminium Matrix. Both reinforcement constituents were added in different combinations, so as to investigate the effect of each of these two and their individual effects. Density test, Micro hardness test and Compression test were carried out on the developed hybrid composites to study the mechanical properties of composites. Micro structural studies were carried out on Al 7075 and all composites. Samples were prepared and tested as per ASTM standards. Significant improvement in micro hardness and Compressive strength was found with an increase in Zirconium dioxide in weight percentage of composites. Micro structural study reveals the uniform distribution of reinforcements ZrO2 and graphite in as cast and Al 7075 metal matrix composites. Vijay Kumar Navuluri | Prasanna Nagasai Bellamkonda | Srikanth Sudabathula "Characterization of Graphite and Zirconium Oxide on Al-7075 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCS) Fabricated by Stir Casting Technique" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26513.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/26513/characterization-of-graphite-and-zirconium-oxide-on-al-7075-metal-matrix-composites-mmcs-fabricated-by-stir-casting-technique/vijay-kumar-navuluri
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
The paper addresses the importance of welding design to prevent corrosion at steel. Welding is
used to join pipe, profiles at bridges, spindle, and a lot more part of engineering construction. The
problems happened associated with welding are common issues in these fields, especially corrosion.
Corrosion can be reduced with many methods, they are painting, controlling humidity, and also good
welding design. In the research, it can be found that reducing residual stress on the welding can be
solved in corrosion rate reduction problem.
Preheating on 500oC and 600oC give better condition to reduce corosion rate than condition after
preheating 400oC. For all welding groove type, material with 500oC and 600oC preheating after 14 days
corrosion test is 0,5%-0,69% lost. Material with 400oC preheating after 14 days corrosion test is 0,57%-0,76%
lost.
Welding groove also influence corrosion rate. X and V type welding groove give better condition to reduce
corrosion rate than use 1/2V and 1/2 X welding groove. After 14 days corrosion test, the samples with
X welding groove type is 0,5%-0,57% lost. The samples with V welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is
0,51%-0,59% lost. The samples with 1/2V and 1/2X welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is 0,58%-
0,71% lost.
Taguchi analysis of single layer CrN coatings on AISI 304 Stainless Steel to ...IJAEMSJORNAL
The purpose of present study was to investigate the erosive corrosive wear behavior of single layer (CrN) coatings on AISI 304 Stainless Steel samples with varying coating thickness (0-200 nm) in the range of 50 nm. The slurry jet erosive test was conducted on Slurry Jet Erosion Tester in saline slurry (3.5wt% salt) under the different working conditions with varying impact velocity (10-25 m/s), impingement angle (30°-75°) and erodent discharge (160-280 gm/min). Taguchi analysis was applied to find optimum parameters for the minimization of erosion rate of various coated and uncoated samples. The results of Taguchi experiments also indicated that among all the factors, impact velocity became least significant when samples were coated with CrN whereas it was most significant for uncoated samples. Coating thickness was the second most significant factor in the case of CrN coated samples. PVD- CrN coatings reduced the wear rate by nearly 2 times.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
The Influence of Shot Angle Variation at the Process of Dry Shot Peening to t...IJAEMSJORNAL
AISI 316L is the austenitic stainless steel type that widely used in biomedical implant and artificial organs. This material’s cannot be hardened by heat treatment but the mechanical strength could be increased by cold working process. Dry shot peening is the one of cold working process in which the surface specimen bombarded with spherical media called shot to produce a compressive residual stress layer and modify mechanical properties of metal’s surface. The objectives of this research are to investigate the effect of shot angle variation of dry shot peening process on the surface roughness and corrosion resistance of AISI 316L.
A Review on Mechanical and Wear Properties of Heat Treated SteelIJSRD
This Review Paper describes effects of heat treatment on various material by varying process parameters and by using different types of heat treatment process. The heat treatment includes heating & cooling operations or the sequence of two or more such operations applied to any material in order to modify metallurgical structure and alter its physical, mechanical and chemical properties. This Review paper shows progress and research in the field of heat treatment process. Different types of heat treatment processes such as annealing, normalising, nitriding, hardening, tempering carburising used & available in recent time. This paper deals with important progress work on heat treatment and its process parameters.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
Mechanical Behaviour of AA 6061-Ca2SiO3 Compositeijtsrd
The advantage of composite materials over non alloy virgin metals has been on the front burner in the engineering materials sphere. To this ends, various reinforcement materials are constantly been mixed with metal matrix to form new composite materials. Ca2SiO3 is a ceramic material which finds application in medicine, heat and noise insulation, acid remediation, cement production etc. since it possesses qualities needed for the formation of composites, and is largely not researched on, this study aimed to characterize the mechanical properties of the AA 6061 Ca2SiO3 composite for different composition of percentage mix, and to establish a model that would predict the UTS for known values of percentage mix and load. Result of the study shows that 6 Ca2SiO3 - 94 AA 6061 and 24 Ca2SiO3 - 76 AA 6061 possessed the highest modulus of elasticity and are stiffer while 2 Ca2SiO3 - 98 AA 6061 mix had the lowest modulus of elasticity, and is more ductile than other composition mix. Also, it was observed that addition of Ca2SiO3 to AA 6061 T4 greatly improves its mechanical properties and96.43 of the variations in stress experienced by various percentage composition of the composite mix can be explained by the developed model. B. C. Chukwudi | B. M. Ogunedo "Mechanical Behaviour of AA 6061-Ca2SiO3 Composite" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47596.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/47596/mechanical-behaviour-of-aa-6061-ca2sio3-composite/b-c-chukwudi
Effect Of Process Parameters On Mechanical Properties Of Friction Stir.Welded...IJERA Editor
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an advance joining process for different similar and dissimilar materials. It is
commonly used for joining of Aluminum alloys. However it is necessary to overcome some challenges for its
wide-spread uses. Tool design and the selection of process parameters are critical issues in the usage of this
process. This study focuses on the process parameters that is required for producing effective friction stir
welding of two similar aluminum alloys (AA6101T6 to AA6101T6) and dissimilar Aluminum alloys
(AA6101T6 alloy to AA6351T6) . Three different tool diameters such as 20 mm, 25 mm and 30 mm with three
different tool rotational speeds such as 600 rpm, 800 rpm and 1200 rpm have been used to weld the joints. The
welded samples were tested for mechanical properties as well as microstructure. It was observed that 30 mm
tool gives better weld quality for friction stir welding of similar aluminum alloy but 25 mm tool with 1200 rpm
rotational speed gave satisfactory weld quality for friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys. It is one
of the important welding process that can adopted for welding of aluminum alloys with excellent mechanical
properties. The results were confirmed by further experiments.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
A study on characterization of Al-18%Si alloy by centrifuge castingdbpublications
Aluminum-silicon alloy are characterized by light weight, good strength –to-weight ratio, ease of fabrication of at reasonable cost, high strength at elevated temperature, good thermal conductivity, excellent castability, good weldability, excellent corrosion and wear resistance property. Thus, these types of alloys are well suited for automotive industries, aerospace structural and military applications. In centrifuge casting solidification rate is faster compared to gravity casting, but still solidification depends on various process parameters like, cooling temperature of molten metal, rotational speed of the die and also wall thickness of die. In centrifuge casting the silicon deposition in aluminum varies from top to bottom. Here Al-Si functionally graded material is used and developed under centrifuge casting. The method used in this work to produce functionally graded material is totally different from other centrifugal casting which helped in producing solid cylindrical parts. This report describes about mechanical characterization of Al-18%Si at different temperature. At 950°C casting shows good ultimate tensile strength and harder metal compared to other casting.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
VOLUME-7 ISSUE-8, AUGUST 2019 , International Journal of Research in Advent Technology (IJRAT) , ISSN: 2321-9637 (Online) Published By: MG Aricent Pvt Ltd
Characterization of Graphite and Zirconium Oxide on Al 7075 Metal Matrix Comp...ijtsrd
This work investigates the mechanical properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites reinforced with Zirconium Oxide and Graphite. The composite material has been prepared by Stir casting technique. Al 7075 as matrix metal, Zirconium oxide and graphite as reinforcements. Zirconium Oxide and Graphite both have been mixed in different proportions in the Aluminium Matrix. Both reinforcement constituents were added in different combinations, so as to investigate the effect of each of these two and their individual effects. Density test, Micro hardness test and Compression test were carried out on the developed hybrid composites to study the mechanical properties of composites. Micro structural studies were carried out on Al 7075 and all composites. Samples were prepared and tested as per ASTM standards. Significant improvement in micro hardness and Compressive strength was found with an increase in Zirconium dioxide in weight percentage of composites. Micro structural study reveals the uniform distribution of reinforcements ZrO2 and graphite in as cast and Al 7075 metal matrix composites. Vijay Kumar Navuluri | Prasanna Nagasai Bellamkonda | Srikanth Sudabathula "Characterization of Graphite and Zirconium Oxide on Al-7075 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCS) Fabricated by Stir Casting Technique" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26513.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/26513/characterization-of-graphite-and-zirconium-oxide-on-al-7075-metal-matrix-composites-mmcs-fabricated-by-stir-casting-technique/vijay-kumar-navuluri
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
The paper addresses the importance of welding design to prevent corrosion at steel. Welding is
used to join pipe, profiles at bridges, spindle, and a lot more part of engineering construction. The
problems happened associated with welding are common issues in these fields, especially corrosion.
Corrosion can be reduced with many methods, they are painting, controlling humidity, and also good
welding design. In the research, it can be found that reducing residual stress on the welding can be
solved in corrosion rate reduction problem.
Preheating on 500oC and 600oC give better condition to reduce corosion rate than condition after
preheating 400oC. For all welding groove type, material with 500oC and 600oC preheating after 14 days
corrosion test is 0,5%-0,69% lost. Material with 400oC preheating after 14 days corrosion test is 0,57%-0,76%
lost.
Welding groove also influence corrosion rate. X and V type welding groove give better condition to reduce
corrosion rate than use 1/2V and 1/2 X welding groove. After 14 days corrosion test, the samples with
X welding groove type is 0,5%-0,57% lost. The samples with V welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is
0,51%-0,59% lost. The samples with 1/2V and 1/2X welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is 0,58%-
0,71% lost.
Taguchi analysis of single layer CrN coatings on AISI 304 Stainless Steel to ...IJAEMSJORNAL
The purpose of present study was to investigate the erosive corrosive wear behavior of single layer (CrN) coatings on AISI 304 Stainless Steel samples with varying coating thickness (0-200 nm) in the range of 50 nm. The slurry jet erosive test was conducted on Slurry Jet Erosion Tester in saline slurry (3.5wt% salt) under the different working conditions with varying impact velocity (10-25 m/s), impingement angle (30°-75°) and erodent discharge (160-280 gm/min). Taguchi analysis was applied to find optimum parameters for the minimization of erosion rate of various coated and uncoated samples. The results of Taguchi experiments also indicated that among all the factors, impact velocity became least significant when samples were coated with CrN whereas it was most significant for uncoated samples. Coating thickness was the second most significant factor in the case of CrN coated samples. PVD- CrN coatings reduced the wear rate by nearly 2 times.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
A study of selected biomechanical variables as a factor of hitting performanc...IOSR Journals
Abstract: The modern age of sports is the excellence, so in every sports perfection and purification of skill has
got its immense importance. Biomechanics is an applied form of mechanics and consequently the method used
to investigate it must be derived from those of mechanics. Biomechanics aim to explain the mechanics of life.
Sports biomechanics have also generated other efforts at improving athletic performance in different games and
sports; it is helpful to minimize sports injuries through both identifying dangerous practice and designing safer
equipment and apparel. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of selected biomechanical
variables with the hitting performance in softball.
Keywords: Biomechanical Variable, Centre of gravity, Evaluation of technique, Performance, Softball Hitting
Experimental Analysis to Optimize parameters of Friction Stir Welding of Alum...IJSRD
This paper is a review of research work in the last decade on friction stir welding. In many industrial applications steel is readily replaced by non-ferrous alloys like aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloys having good mechanical properties as equated structural steel and low weight that allows a significant reduction in weight. But the welding of aluminum alloys by regular processes can causes serious problems. The difficulties are like loss of alloying elements and presence of separation and porosities in the weld joint. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state welding process, which removes all these problems of solidification related with the conventional fusion welding processes. In this research work an attempt has been made to develop an the relationship between FSW variables (tool rotation and tilt angle) and tensile strength and yield strength of number of pass friction stir welded aluminium alloy AA 6082 butt joints. Taguchi method is used for analysing the problem in which several independent variables influence the response. A three-parameter -three-level central composite design was used to determine the optimal factors of friction stir welding process for aluminium alloy.
Ahmed ibrahim razooqi -- study the microstructure and mechanical properties ...ahmed Ibrahim
Ahmed Ibrahim Razooqi ---
Study the microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar friction stir spot welding of carbon steel 1006 to aluminum alloy aa2024-t3.
Friction stir spot welding-FSSW has been suggested as effectual process to welding difficult materials such as dissimilar materials and
thin sheet of metal alloys. In this study, using dissimilar materials were welded carbon steel-1006 on upper plate and aluminum alloy
AA2024-T3 on lower plate. Macrostructure, micro-structural analysis and mechanical properties of the joints are done. The effect of
penetration depth, dwell time and spindle speed on tensile shear load are investigated with invariable of other parameter during welding
process. The maximum tensile shear load (3.31KN) was occurred when using 0.4mm of penetration depth, 10 sec of dwell time and 1400
rpm of spindle speed. Also, two type of failure shape was observed interfacial fracture of carbon steel sheet and pull -out fracture of
AA2024-T3 sheet.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
esearch Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Cryogenic treatment is a secondary process to traditional heat treatment used for improving the hardness and wear resistance of tool steels. Though the potential use of cryogenic treatment on AISI D2 tool steel under laboratory conditions has been well established by the researchers, it is essential to do the analysis to ensure its sustainable use for industrial application. Therefore, impact of cryogenic treatment on AISI D2 steel blanking punch was evaluated in terms of increase in production rate and its life. The cryogenically treated D2 tool steel punches were used and subjected to manufacture the control levers using blanking operations. The improved wear resistance of cryogenically treated punch resulted in increase in production and punch life more than 200%. Punch life was studied and correlated to increase in production & wear behavior of blanking punch. The AISI D2 steel samples were prepared and subjected to laboratory tests comprising of metallographic observations and hardness. It was found that laboratory tests were not enough to predict improvements in mechanical properties. The mechanism responsible for augmented wear resistance by cryogenic treatment was the conversion of retained austenite to martensite and precipitation of new secondary carbides.
Effect of Tool Rotation Speed on the Hardness of Welded Joints of Aluminium A...ijsrd.com
Aluminum alloys are used in engineering design for their light weight, high strength-to weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and relatively low cost. Aluminum is available in various compositions, including “pure†metal, alloys for casting, and alloys for the manufacture of wrought products wrought Alloys. Most aluminum alloys used for wrought products contain Less than 7 percent of alloying elements. By the regulation of the amount and type of elements added, the properties of the aluminum can be enhanced and its working characteristics improved. In this welding process we have study that two pieces of aluminum alloy (6063) were welded with the help of friction stir welding process and here in this welding process we have found that the microstructure of weld zone was characterized by dynamic recrastallization producing fine grain structure. The vickers hardness testing results obtained for welded specimens and we have observed that the hardness is increases and decreases on different parameters like tool rotation speed. But we have obtained that as the tool rotating speed is increases the hardness will aslo increases. Finally we obtained the max. hardness(Hv-40) on max. Tool rotation speed of (rpm-1800).
EVALUATION OF PROCESSES PARAMETER AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN FRICTION STIR ...IAEME Publication
The present study focuses on Friction Stir Welding of steel being very popular due to the vast application in the fields of automotive and ship building industries. The main constrained of welding steel has considered due to severe loads and temperatures at the interface of FSW tool and parent materials. Ti and pcBN based alloys are suitable for joining steel alloys up to 15 mm thick was found during study. Many researchers carried out study on FSW of steel and found on weld process parameters, mechanical properties, microstructure and the tool employed to produce the weld. It was found that carbon content, welding speed as well as the rotational speed affects between the mechanical properties and the microstructure of the weld.
A Review on Effect of Process Parameters on Tensile Strength of Friction Stir...ijsrd.com
Friction stir welding (FSW) is an innovative solid state joining process. This paper discuss about the friction stir welding of joining heat treated aluminum alloys for Aerospace and Automobile industries. These welded joints have higher tensile strength to weight ratio and finer micro structure. FSW of aluminum alloys have the potential to hold good mechanical and metallurgical properties. An attempt is made to determine and evaluate the influence of the process parameters of FSW on the weldments. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of process parameters on the tensile strength of the welded joints.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Experimental Investigation of Tensile Strength and Deflection Characteristics...IOSR Journals
Aluminum alloys are used in many applications in which the combination of high strength and low
weight is attractive; ship building, air frame, transportation industry etc. are some areas in which the low
weight can be significant value. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a new welding technique particularly well suited
to aluminum alloys though this technique is also used for other materials. Friction stir welding promises joints
with low porosity, fine microstructures, minimum phase transformation and low oxidation compared to
conventional welding techniques. It is capable of joining combinations of alloys not amenable to conventional
welding.Experiments for tensile and deflection tests were carried out and reported in this research paper. The
base material used for friction stir welding was AA 6351–T4 Aluminum alloy. Tensile strength and breaking
loads were increased with increase of rotational speed of the tool but it drops after attaining marginal speed.
Deflections of friction stir welded specimens and base materials were compared and they exhibited almost
similar trends at different load conditions and deflections of all the specimens were increased with increment of
load
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
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Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
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The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair.pdf
Friction Stir Welding of steels: AReview Paper
1. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 9, Issue 3 (Sep. - Oct. 2013), PP 16-20
www.iosrjournals.org
www.iosrjournals.org 16 | Page
Friction Stir Welding of steels: AReview Paper
Kudzanayi Chiteka
(Production Engineering, Delhi Technological University, India)
Abstract:Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that can be applied to a number of
materials including aluminium, magnesium, copper and steels. A number of researches have been conducted in
Friction Stir Welding of steels and it is the focus of this paper to make a comprehensive review of the work that
has been done. Ultra-low carbon steels, low carbon steels, medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and ultra-
high carbon steels have been considered and several aspects of FSW of steels have been outlined. These are
tools, mechanical properties and microstructure. It was determined that carbon content, welding speed as well
as rotational speed affect both mechanical properties and microstructure of the joint.
Key words: Friction Stir Welding, FSW parameters, FSW tools, Mechanical properties, Microstructure.
I. Introduction
The technique of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was developed at The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991
as a method to join non-ferrous materials like aluminium and magnesium. Due to difficulties of high
temperature involved in joining of steel which has an effect of rapid softening and wearing of the tool, this
process was not so popular in joining of steel and other hard materials like titanium. Of late, it has been
discovered that if FSW is applied to steels, the mechanical properties were close to the base materials (Choi et
al.2011) [1].There have been a discovery of suitable tool material such as Tungsten Carbide (WC) and
Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) for FSW tools which can join hard alloys such as steels and Ti
alloys. Because of such discoveries, the joining of steels became increasingly popular (Rai et al. 2011)[2].Fujii
et al. (2006)[3], noted that the use of FSW process had the advantage that material is not melted and hence grain
growth cannot occur when this method is applied thus it has been shown that the process of FSW is a solid state
process which does not involve the melting of the materials being joined. The residual stresses and distortion in
FSW welds are generally lower than those found in fusion welds. The associated lower energy input in FSW
tends to minimise grain growth in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) thus limiting distortion and residual stresses.
FSW being a solid state process eliminates the problems associated with hydrogen cracking in steels (Lienert et
al. 2003) [4].
In FSW process, a shouldered tool with a probe is rotated and traversed along the joint line of the two
materials being joined. It is that rotation which cause frictional heating that softens and plasticise the work
material resulting in joining. Yousif et al. (2008) [4] made a remarkable statement when he said that FSW is
rather a combined effect of forging and extrusion and not a true welding process in actual fact.
II. Successfully welded steels
Lienert et al. (2003) [5] undertook a feasibility study on the FSW of mild steel (hot-rolled AISI 1018
steel plates) 6.35 mm thick with welding done parallel to the rolling direction. The research yielded defect free
welds with traverse speeds ranging from 0.43 to 1.68mm/s at speeds varying from 450 to 650 rpm. This process
was done in the presents of a shielding gas. Molybdenum-based and tungsten-based alloy tools were used. In
this undertaking a peak surface temperature of 1000 o
C was attained and also failure was not in the joint but
rather in the base metal implying a stronger joint. A tensile strength of 476 MPa was attained which surpassed
that of the base metal of 463 MPa.
Cho et al. (2012) [6] studied the microstructural evolution in friction stir welding of high-strength API
X100 grade linepipe steel 10mm on thickness using a PCBN tool with 16 mm shoulder diameter and 4 mm pin
diameter in an inert gas environment. A rotation speed of 450 rpm and a traverse speed of 127 mm/min were
used. Acicular-shaped bainitic ferrites were formed by the phase transformation in most parts of the stir zone
(SZ). In the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), a fine-grained microstructure was observed and this
was attributed to continuous dynamic recrystallization. There was higher hardness in the SZ compared to other
regions.
Sato et al. (2007) [7] analysed the FSW of ultrahigh carbon steel 2.3 mm thickness consisting of a
(ferrite + cementite) duplex structure. They used a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) tool and defect-
free welds were produced successfully at rotational speeds between 400 and 800 rpm. When all welds were
examined, there was no large difference in microstructure and hardness. It was found that the hardness profile
and microstructural distribution in ultra-high carbon steels are not dependent on the rotational speed.
2. Friction Stir Welding of steels: A Review Paper
www.iosrjournals.org 17 | Page
Jafarzadegan et al. (2013) [8] studied the FSW of 304 stainless steel and st37 steel at 600 rpm and
50mm/min traverse speed. A refined grain structure was identified in the SZ and this increased the hardness and
tensile strength in the SZ.
Reynolds et al. (2003)[9] in the FSW study of the SZ of 304L 3.2 mm thick recorded grain refinement
in stainless steel and also there was high tensile properties and hardness. The yield strength obtained was higher
than that of the base metal (BM) attaining a value of 430MPa at 300 rpm compared to 295 MPa of the base
metal. A tensile strength of 735 MPa was attained at that same speed compared to 667 MPa for the base metal.
In another study using same material Park et al. (2003) [10] produced comparable results.
Fujii et al. (2006)[3] examined the effect of carbon content in different carbon steels (IF steel, S12C,
S35C) in FSW, and analysed the effect of peak temperature on the mechanical and microstructural properties.
There was a uniform grain structure in the SZ composed of equiaxed grains with sub-structures. The grain sizes
at the SZ centre welded under lowest and highest heat input conditions were 5 and 6µm respectively which are
far smaller compared to 24µm for the base metal.
Lakshminarayanan and Balasubramanian (2010)[11] studied the Microstructure and mechanical
characterization of friction stir welded 409M ferritic stainless steel joint produced by FSW. Defect-free joints
were produced at a welding speed of 50 mm/min and rotation speed of 1000 rpm. Overmatching of the joint
relative to the BM was observed in tensile tests. Acceptable ductility and impact toughness were also witnessed.
FSW of SK5 (0.84 wt% C) steel by Choi et al. (2011) [1] resulted in less martensite formation when a
gas torch was used in one set of experiments and not used in another. However, the tensile strength results were
similar to those of the BM.Cui et al. (2007) [12] recorded successful joining of high carbon steel S70C. The
hardness of the joint was higher than the BM. Chung et al. (2010) [13] also successfully joined high carbon steel
(0.85 mass% C, AISI-1080) at a temperature below A1 to exclude martensite formation in the joint. Defect-free
joints have been produced in this process as well.
III. Joining of steels to other metals
Steels have also been joined to other types of metals which include aluminium as studied by Wanatabe
et al.(2006) [14].A butt weld was produced between aluminium A5083 (Al–4.5 mass% Mg–0.5 mass% MN)
and mild steel plates (SS400) 2mm in thickness. The joining was successful and easily attained. A tensile
strength 86% of that of the base metal was achieved. The upper part of steel/aluminum interface had a small
amount of intermetallic compounds formed but this was not the case in the middle and bottom parts of the
interface. These regions with intermetallic compounds were the fracture paths in the joint. The aluminium alloy
matrix had scattered fragments of steel.Dehghani et al. (2012) [15], conducted FSW on 3mm mild steel (St52)
sheet and a cold rolled 3003-H18 aluminum alloy sheet. Defect-free joints were produced in this study.
Maximum UTS of 96 MPa was attained on the joint and this was higher than the aluminium BM.In another
research, Coelho et al (2012) [16]successfully joined DP600 and HC260LA HSS plates to AA6181-T4 Al alloy
by FSW. Defect-free joints were produced in this research and UTS tests gave 80% joint strength compared to
the aluminium BM.Joining of steel to aluminium has proved to be feasible with joint strength attaining about
80% of the aluminium base metals.
IV. Process parameters
Like in any other FSW process, the most significant process parameters in FSW of steels include
welding speed, spindle speed, tool geometry and the axial force applied.Microstructural evolution is controlled
by total strain, strain rate and the temperatures attained in the welding process (Lienert et al, 2003) [5].
Mishra and Ma (2005) [17] stated that tool geometry is the most influential parameter which plays an
important part in material flow in FSW process. Tool geometry determines the welding speed at which FSW can
be performed.Threaded cylindrical pins have been found to be very popular with FSW. It has also been noted by
Mishra and Ma (2005) [17] that higher tool rotation results in higher temperatures due to higher friction heating.
This will result in intense stirring and mixing of material.
Fujii et al. (2006) [3], studied the effect of carbon content in the FSW of IF, S12C and S35C. It was
proven that the welding conditions had a notable effect to microstructures and mechanical properties of the
carbon steel joints. As the carbon content increases, the higher are the chances of phase transformations, as
such; the microstructure becomes highly dependent on the parameters used. These parameters are in particular,
welding speed and rotational speed which determine the temperature output which in turn determine phase
transformation and thus martensite formation in carbon steels.In certain instances, a shielding gas can be used to
prevent oxidation at high temperatures involved Chung et al. (2010) [13].
V. Microstructural Characterisation
Fujii et al (2006) [5],noted that FSW in steels generally has a grain refinement in the stir zone of the
carbon steel just similar to Al alloys. On top of that, complex phase transformations also occur in the FSW
3. Friction Stir Welding of steels: A Review Paper
www.iosrjournals.org 18 | Page
process.Four regions have been identified in FSW and these correspond to Nugget Zone (stir zone), Thermo-
mechanically Affected Zone, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and Base Metal. According to the studies done on
high-strength API X100 grade linepipe steel by Cho et al (2012) [6],there is grain growth in HAZ due to high
heat levels attained in this zone. The microstructure of this zone only differs with the BM in grain size. Like the
SZ, the TMAZ has a fine grained microstructure due to continuous dynamic recrystallization.In SZ there is a
significant difference in the structure morphology, texture and misorientation-angle distribution. Unlike the
other three zones, the SZ is difficult to analyse as stated by Lienert et al. (2003) [5]in FSW of mild steel.The
effects of thermo-mechanical cycle are both considered when giving an analysis of this zone in relation to
microstructural development. Lienert et al. (2003) [5] associated this zone as undergoing a hot working process.
Temperatures in this zone were said to exceed 1100o
C and strain rates also exceeding 1. Restorative processes
which include dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization, and metadynamic recrystallization tend to operate
individually or as a combination during the hot working process.
Figure 1. HAZ, TMAZ and SZ of high strength linepipe steel (Cho et al. 2012) [6].
Fujii et al (2006)[3], when they analysed interstitial free (IF), S12C (low carbon Steel) and S35C (medium
carbon steel) observed that there was a uniform grain structure in the SZ composed of equiaxed grains with sub-
structures. The grain sizes at the SZ centre welded under lowest and highest heat input conditions were 5 and
6µm respectively which are far smaller compared to 24µm for the BM.The entire IF steel FSW welds were done
in the ferrite single-phase region and there was no phase transformation but heavy deformation and
recrystallization was observed.Theydiscovered that ferrite–pearlite structures with a limited amount of pearlite
were observed under all the welding conditions in the FSW of S12C and they noted that the total amount of
carbides was very small. The medium carbon steel, S35C in almost all welding conditions, the SZ contained the
ferrite–pearlite structures.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Different microstructures of: (a) S12C (b) S35C, Fujii et al. (2006) [3], (c) S70C, Cui et al. (2007)
[12].
VI. Mechanical properties
Experiments which have been done on FSW of mild steel by Lienert et al (2003) [5] have revealed
tensile properties very close to those of the BM. They attained yield strength 331 MPa against 310 MPa for the
BM and a tensile strength of 476 MPa against 463 Mpa for the BM. The hardness values ranged from 155 to
175 VHN compared to 135 VHN for the BM. Bending tests at 180o
revealed tensile strain of 15% at the outer
fibre.Fujii et al (2006)[3], in the study of the effect of carbon content in the FSW of IF, S12C and S35C noted
that, welding speed increases the strength of the S12C joints.Mechanical properties of steel joints produced by
FSW have improved mechanical properties compared to the BM.The weld regions generally possess higher
hardness although the hardness profile depends on the steel type and the welding conditions.
Fujii et al. [18] in the FSW of interstitial free steel (IF steel: 20 ppmC), and ultrafine grained steel
discovered that there was no significant change in microstructure and mechanical properties due to the ultra-low
carbon content. However this is not the situation with S35C which is a medium carbon steel.
4. Friction Stir Welding of steels: A Review Paper
www.iosrjournals.org 19 | Page
(a) (b)
Figure 3. The relationship between welding speed and ultimate strength in IF, S12C and S35C and hardness of
IF steel, Fujii et al. (2006) [3]
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Hardness of IF steel, S12C and S35C, Fujii et al. (2006) [3]
Figure 5. Hardness of S70C, Cui et al (2007) [12]
VII. Tools used in FSW of steels
Although there is rapid wear of the tool, this does not affect the tensile strength of the weld joint.
However, tool life has remained a major concern.It has been noted that the plunging stage has the greatest
amount of tool wear. This has been attributed to high loads and the cold state of the work during plunging. Some
5. Friction Stir Welding of steels: A Review Paper
www.iosrjournals.org 20 | Page
methods have been devised so that tool wear during plunging is minimised. It has been found that a partial
solution can be found by preheating the plunge area, slow plunge rate, partial penetration and partial diameter
hole (Lienert et al, 2003) [5].WC-based materials have been used in the joining of high carbon steels, Cui et al.
(2007) [12].WC-based tools are strong at elevated temperatures. This tool material has excellent toughness and
good thermal conductivity at temperatures below A1, Chung et al. (2010) [13].The joining of steels requires
tools which can operate at elevated temperatures but still maintains high strength and hardness. Such materials
include PCBN, Rai et al. (2011) [2]. This material can weld very hard materials including titanium. PCBN has a
low coefficient of friction.
VIII. Conclusion
Very low carbon steels undergo fewer changes in comparison to the microstructures and mechanical
properties of the carbon steels which are greatly affected by the welding parameters. Temperatures as well as
carbon content have a huge bearing on the microstructure. High welding speed yields a higher joint hardness.
The highest hardness that can be attained is three times as much as the BM, Cui et al. (2007) [12].Higher
rotation speed in carbon steels also causes phase transformation which will have a strong effect to the
mechanical properties of the joint.
FSW allows adjustments to be made so as to obtain a sound joint in steels. This can be attained by
decreasing the peak temperature to below A1 and also decrease the cooling rate to less than the lower critical
cooling rate. By so doing, FSW allows control of the cooling rate and peak temperature unlike other welding
methods.
Friction Stir Welding has a grain refining effect in the SZ of carbon steels. Mechanical properties are
also improved compared to the BM.
When FSW has been performed under appropriate conditions, joining of high carbon steels without
transformation can be attained and due to the homogeneous microstructure in the joints, they have improved
ductility.
In ultra-high carbon steel, the effect of the rotational speed on the hardness profile is negligible, and the
microstructural distribution is also hardly dependent on the rotational speed,Sato et al. (2012) [7].
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