The document discusses welding techniques for joining copper and steel, which is challenging due to their different thermal and metallurgical properties. Laser welding and electron beam welding are described as they allow localized heating to minimize thermal stresses. However, issues like porosity, cracking and liquid phase separation still occur. Tungsten inert gas welding also causes phase separation during solidification. Overall, successful welding requires controlling heating/cooling to prevent defects, as the materials tend to separate in liquid form due to metallurgical differences.
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
IRJET - Parametric Optimization of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding for Austenitic St...IRJET Journal
This document discusses optimizing gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) parameters for joining austenitic stainless steel J4 and brass C21000 using the Taguchi method. Three welding parameters were selected - groove angle, preheat temperature, and welding current. Experiments were conducted using an L9 orthogonal array with the parameters set at three levels each. Microstructural analysis of the welds was performed to evaluate depth of penetration on the stainless steel side as the objective function for the Taguchi analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also conducted on the response data using MINITAB software. The goal of the study was to determine optimal welding parameters to produce a sound weld between the dissimilar metals
Analysis of Interfacial Microsstructure of Post Weld Heat Treated Dissimilar ...IOSR Journals
This document analyzes the interfacial microstructure of a post weld heat treated dissimilar metal weld between type 316LN austenitic stainless steel and C-steel. Single V-groove butt joints were welded using Inconel 182 welding consumables. The joints were post weld heat treated at temperatures between 898K to 973K for 1 hour. Microstructural analysis found that in the as-welded condition, the weld/C-steel interface consisted mostly of martensite or ferrite and carbides. Post weld heat treatment resulted in the precipitation of carbides at the interface. Heat treating at 973K led to recrystallized grains in the C-
This document discusses analysis of hardness in metal inert gas welding of two dissimilar metals, mild steel and stainless steel. It begins with an abstract stating that the aim is to study how hardness affects welding joints between dissimilar metals. Stainless steel 304 was welded to mild steel using metal inert gas welding with a stainless steel filler wire and argon gas shielding. The combination of mild steel and stainless steel has many industrial applications but their differences in properties like melting point can cause failures. The results will indicate the optimal current and voltage values that develop welds between mild steel and stainless steel 304 with maximum hardness.
Effect of tool offset and tilt angle on weld strength of butt joint friction ...Alexander Decker
This document discusses an experiment investigating the effect of tool offset and tilt angle on the weld strength of friction stir welded butt joints between AA2024 aluminum alloy and copper. Specimens were welded using a tool with 2 degree tilt and various pin offsets. Tensile testing showed specimens welded with 1 mm pin offset and 2 degree tilt had the highest strength. Microstructure analysis revealed intercalated aluminum and copper pieces in the weld nugget, as well as copper hooks providing strength. Welding with tilt improved strength by removing voids compared to zero tilt.
Friction Stir Welding of steels: AReview PaperIOSR Journals
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that can be applied to a number of
materials including aluminium, magnesium, copper and steels. A number of researches have been conducted in
Friction Stir Welding of steels and it is the focus of this paper to make a comprehensive review of the work that
has been done. Ultra-low carbon steels, low carbon steels, medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and ultrahigh
carbon steels have been considered and several aspects of FSW of steels have been outlined. These are
tools, mechanical properties and microstructure. It was determined that carbon content, welding speed as well
as rotational speed affect both mechanical properties and microstructure of the joint.
Effect of welding heat input on the microstructure of dissimilar metals: Inco...Mohamad Masaeli
Abstract
In dissimilar joining, the correct selection of filler metal and appropriate joining heat input is critical. In the current
study, two dissimilar alloys (Inconel 625, 316L stainless steel) and a super alloy of Inconel 625 were welded using
the tungsten arc method under inert gas protection. Welding was performed using three filler metals (Inconel 625, 82
and 309 L stainless steel) and three different heat inputs (1.5, 1.9, 2.3 kJ/mm) under the protection of argon gas.
Microstructures of different areas of welding joints were investigated under all welding conditions using optical
microscopy and a scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The results
showed that all joining have a good continuity with no splits or discontinuity at the joint point. All filler metals
microstructures were observed in austenitic form with frozen dendrite structure. This investigation showed the
presence of an unadulterated region in some joining, and it became clear that this area increased with increased heat
input.
The document summarizes a study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of welds between 316L stainless steel and galvanized low carbon steel. Welding was performed with and without the galvanized coating using two shielding gas combinations: Ar + 2%O2 and Ar + 2%He + 2%O2. Mechanical tests including tensile, impact and bend tests were conducted on the welded samples. Microstructural characterization was also carried out to understand the mechanical behavior. The results showed that removing the galvanized coating and using Ar + 2%He + 2%O2 as shielding gas improved the ductility and impact strength of the welds. However, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
IRJET - Parametric Optimization of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding for Austenitic St...IRJET Journal
This document discusses optimizing gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) parameters for joining austenitic stainless steel J4 and brass C21000 using the Taguchi method. Three welding parameters were selected - groove angle, preheat temperature, and welding current. Experiments were conducted using an L9 orthogonal array with the parameters set at three levels each. Microstructural analysis of the welds was performed to evaluate depth of penetration on the stainless steel side as the objective function for the Taguchi analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also conducted on the response data using MINITAB software. The goal of the study was to determine optimal welding parameters to produce a sound weld between the dissimilar metals
Analysis of Interfacial Microsstructure of Post Weld Heat Treated Dissimilar ...IOSR Journals
This document analyzes the interfacial microstructure of a post weld heat treated dissimilar metal weld between type 316LN austenitic stainless steel and C-steel. Single V-groove butt joints were welded using Inconel 182 welding consumables. The joints were post weld heat treated at temperatures between 898K to 973K for 1 hour. Microstructural analysis found that in the as-welded condition, the weld/C-steel interface consisted mostly of martensite or ferrite and carbides. Post weld heat treatment resulted in the precipitation of carbides at the interface. Heat treating at 973K led to recrystallized grains in the C-
This document discusses analysis of hardness in metal inert gas welding of two dissimilar metals, mild steel and stainless steel. It begins with an abstract stating that the aim is to study how hardness affects welding joints between dissimilar metals. Stainless steel 304 was welded to mild steel using metal inert gas welding with a stainless steel filler wire and argon gas shielding. The combination of mild steel and stainless steel has many industrial applications but their differences in properties like melting point can cause failures. The results will indicate the optimal current and voltage values that develop welds between mild steel and stainless steel 304 with maximum hardness.
Effect of tool offset and tilt angle on weld strength of butt joint friction ...Alexander Decker
This document discusses an experiment investigating the effect of tool offset and tilt angle on the weld strength of friction stir welded butt joints between AA2024 aluminum alloy and copper. Specimens were welded using a tool with 2 degree tilt and various pin offsets. Tensile testing showed specimens welded with 1 mm pin offset and 2 degree tilt had the highest strength. Microstructure analysis revealed intercalated aluminum and copper pieces in the weld nugget, as well as copper hooks providing strength. Welding with tilt improved strength by removing voids compared to zero tilt.
Friction Stir Welding of steels: AReview PaperIOSR Journals
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that can be applied to a number of
materials including aluminium, magnesium, copper and steels. A number of researches have been conducted in
Friction Stir Welding of steels and it is the focus of this paper to make a comprehensive review of the work that
has been done. Ultra-low carbon steels, low carbon steels, medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and ultrahigh
carbon steels have been considered and several aspects of FSW of steels have been outlined. These are
tools, mechanical properties and microstructure. It was determined that carbon content, welding speed as well
as rotational speed affect both mechanical properties and microstructure of the joint.
Effect of welding heat input on the microstructure of dissimilar metals: Inco...Mohamad Masaeli
Abstract
In dissimilar joining, the correct selection of filler metal and appropriate joining heat input is critical. In the current
study, two dissimilar alloys (Inconel 625, 316L stainless steel) and a super alloy of Inconel 625 were welded using
the tungsten arc method under inert gas protection. Welding was performed using three filler metals (Inconel 625, 82
and 309 L stainless steel) and three different heat inputs (1.5, 1.9, 2.3 kJ/mm) under the protection of argon gas.
Microstructures of different areas of welding joints were investigated under all welding conditions using optical
microscopy and a scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The results
showed that all joining have a good continuity with no splits or discontinuity at the joint point. All filler metals
microstructures were observed in austenitic form with frozen dendrite structure. This investigation showed the
presence of an unadulterated region in some joining, and it became clear that this area increased with increased heat
input.
The document summarizes a study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of welds between 316L stainless steel and galvanized low carbon steel. Welding was performed with and without the galvanized coating using two shielding gas combinations: Ar + 2%O2 and Ar + 2%He + 2%O2. Mechanical tests including tensile, impact and bend tests were conducted on the welded samples. Microstructural characterization was also carried out to understand the mechanical behavior. The results showed that removing the galvanized coating and using Ar + 2%He + 2%O2 as shielding gas improved the ductility and impact strength of the welds. However, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths
REVIEW ON EFFECT OF HEAT INPUT ON TENSILE STRENGTH OF BUTT WELD JOINT USING M...ijiert bestjournal
This document summarizes a research paper that investigated the effect of heat input on the tensile strength of butt weld joints using MIG welding. The researchers found that increasing heat input affected the microstructure of the base metal and heat affected zone. Tensile strength decreased with higher heat input. Microhardness was observed to increase in the weld pool but decrease in the heat affected zone with greater heat input. Optical microscopy showed smaller dendrite sizes and spacing at low heat input compared to larger dendrites and spacing at high heat input. The extent of grain coarsening in the heat affected zone also increased with higher heat input. In conclusion, welding heat input significantly influences the properties of welded joints.
The document summarizes a study that investigated brazing 304L stainless steel corner joints using a nickel-based filler metal. Specifically:
- Brazing was performed under vacuum using a nickel-based shim and wire on 304L stainless steel sheets of different thicknesses.
- Microstructural examination found differences in the diffusion depth of nickel in the sheets based on their thicknesses. Microhardness was also affected by nickel diffusion.
- The nickel-based filler metal provided reasonable strength for the brazed joints between the 304L sheets of different thicknesses, as well as sufficient diffusion and filling for vacuum applications.
The effect of welding heat input and welding speed on microstructure of chrom...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document summarizes a research article from the International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology that studied the microstructure and mechanical properties of mild steel-copper joints created through friction welding. Key findings include:
1) Hardness tests found the weld interface had higher hardness than the base metals, with mild steel hardness increasing towards the heat affected zone and copper increasing slightly at the interface.
2) Tensile testing showed welded joints had lower strength than the base metals, failing in the reaction layer formed at the copper side near the interface.
3) Microstructural analysis found that at high rotational speeds, surface irregularities were smoothed and full bonding occurred at the interface, while low speeds allowed imp
This document provides a literature review of submerged arc welding (SAW) research. It discusses the history and process of SAW. Key points include:
- SAW involves an electric arc between a consumable electrode and the workpiece, with the arc surrounded by a bed of granular flux that prevents atmospheric contamination and increases weld pool size.
- Many studies have analyzed the effects of various SAW process parameters like current, voltage, and wire feed rate on weld properties and microstructure of steels. Properties examined include hardness, toughness, bead geometry, and heat-affected zone characteristics.
- Research has optimized SAW parameters using techniques like Taguchi methods and developed mathematical models relating inputs
Investigate Temperature Preheating on the Chill Plate to Identify Surface Cha...Natalino Fonseca
1. The document describes an investigation into the effect of temperature preheating on the chill plate to characterize the surface of ductile iron castings.
2. Samples of ductile iron were cast against chill plates that were preheated to different temperatures (500°C, 700°C, 900°C, and unheated) to study the microhardness, surface layer thickness, and elemental composition on the casting surface.
3. Preliminary results found that higher preheat temperatures produced a carbide structure on the casting surface, while no preheating resulted in a fully ferritic microstructure with uniform carbide formation and a pearlite-ferrite microstructure.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
This document summarizes Mitchell Smith's undergraduate research project on friction stir welding of similar and dissimilar metal alloys. Smith conducted trial welds of aluminum alloys to understand the friction stir welding process and machine settings. Welds were made of similar aluminum alloys and dissimilar aluminum-copper alloys. Challenges included preventing separation of metal pieces during welding. Further tests are needed to characterize the welds and properties of the welded metals, including microstructural analysis, tensile tests, and impact tests. Continued research on welding nano-reinforced metals could expand applications of friction stir welding in fields like nuclear engineering.
Optimization on Spot Weld Parameters in Resistance Spot Welding Process on AI...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
The spot welding procedure is used in a variety of industrial applications. The most critical elements influencing welding quality, productivity, and cost are the spot welding parameters. This research examines the effect of welding factors such as welding current and welding time on the strength of various welding joint designs. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is used in the automotive industry for manufacturing. This research focused on the optimization of process parameters for resistance spot welding (RSW), as well as the tensile testing and spot weld diameter. The goals of this analysis are to comprehend the physics of the process and to demonstrate the effect of electrical current, weld time, and material type on the resistance spot welding process.
1) A study investigated the microstructure and mechanical properties of TIG welded magnesium-lithium alloy plates.
2) The results showed that the microstructure in the fusion zone was refined while the heat affected zone had coarser grains than the base metal.
3) Tensile testing found that the tensile strength of the welded joint was 84% of the base metal strength due to the coarse grains in the heat affected zone causing lower mechanical properties.
IRJET- Investigation on Dissimilar Metal Welding of Stainless Steel 316 L and...IRJET Journal
The document investigates dissimilar metal welding of stainless steel 316L and mild steel A-2062 using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Sixteen samples were prepared with variations in welding speed, current, and gas pressure based on a Taguchi experimental design. Tensile testing found ultimate tensile strengths ranging from 394 to 454 MPa. Microhardness was slightly higher than the base materials in the weld zone and heat-affected zone. Microstructure analysis was conducted on samples with the highest ultimate tensile strength, highest heat input, and lowest heat input. The depth of penetration averaged 5.8484 mm and bead width averaged 4.8243 mm across samples.
IRJET- Evaluation of Mechanical and Metallurgical Properties of TIG Welded Al...IRJET Journal
1. The document evaluates the mechanical and metallurgical properties of TIG welded aluminum alloy joints. AA5083 aluminum alloy was welded using TIG welding.
2. Various tests were conducted on the welded joints, including microhardness testing, tensile testing, and microstructural analysis. Microhardness was highest in the weld zone due to changes in microstructure from welding.
3. Tensile testing results showed that the ultimate tensile strength decreased from 385 MPa in the base material to 225 MPa in the welded material, likely due to changes in microstructure and properties from the welding process.
This document provides a review of research on optimizing the characteristics of different welding processes for duplex stainless steels. It discusses how the welding parameters and phase transformations can affect the quality and properties of the weld. Specifically, it examines how the ferrite and austenite phases form in the weld bead, the effects of heat treatments on microstructure and properties, sigma phase formation, and how the welding thermal cycle impacts duplex stainless steels. The goal of the research discussed is to determine the optimal welding parameters and techniques to produce welds in duplex stainless steels with the desired mechanical properties and minimum defects.
Studies on the effects of oxidation and its repression in mag welding process...iaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the effects of oxidation and its repression in the metal active gas (MAG) welding process. The study found that carbon dioxide used as a shielding gas in MAG welding can decompose into carbon monoxide and oxygen during welding, with the oxygen promoting oxidation of the base metal and alloying elements. However, the use of electrodes containing manganese, silicon, and aluminum as deoxidizers was found to suppress this oxidation by preferentially reacting with oxygen. As a result, welds produced with a low-alloy steel electrode containing these deoxidizers had lower oxygen content and improved mechanical properties compared to welds with a mild steel electrode. The repression of oxidation during MAG welding also
Studies on the effects of oxidation and its repression in mag welding processiaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the effects of oxidation and its repression in the metal active gas (MAG) welding process. The study found that carbon dioxide used as a shielding gas in MAG welding can decompose into carbon monoxide and oxygen during welding, with the oxygen promoting oxidation of the base metal and alloying elements. However, the use of electrodes containing manganese, silicon, and aluminum as deoxidizers was found to suppress this oxidation by preferentially reacting with oxygen. As a result, welds produced with a low-alloy steel electrode containing these deoxidizers had lower oxygen content and improved mechanical properties compared to welds with a mild steel electrode. The repression of oxidation during MAG welding also
Evaluation of Hardness of Bimetallic Weld joint between SA-508Gr3 and SS-304LIRJET Journal
This document evaluates the hardness of a bimetallic weld joint between carbon steel SA 508 Gr3 and stainless steel SS 304L. The study involved welding the two metals with and without a buttering layer between them. Hardness and impact tests found that buttering improved the mechanical properties of the weld joint. Specifically, the maximum hardness was 37.5 for joints with buttering and 27.5 for joints without buttering. The buttering layer was stainless steel SS 309L deposited on the SA 508 Gr3 surface before welding.
a survey on gas metal arc welding (gmaw) reviewNEERAJKUMAR1898
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a common and cost-effective welding process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode. This document provides an overview of GMAW, including that it uses an electric arc between the wire electrode and workpiece to produce heat and join metals. The wire electrode is continuously fed into the weld pool and consumed, becoming the filler metal. The document discusses the different metal transfer modes in GMAW and that spray transfer mode is used for high productivity welding. It also reviews previous literature on optimizing GMAW parameters and microstructure for applications such as welding high-strength low-alloy steel.
A Study of microstructure and mechanical properties of 5083 Al-alloy welded w...IJRES Journal
Based on the lightweight design of high-speed vehicles, IPG YLS-5000 optical fiber laser was used for welding test of 5083 aluminum alloy. The influence of laser power and welding speed on the weld forming is carried out, and also analyze the microstructure and mechanical properties of the welded joint. It indicates that the welding process of fiber laser welding of 5083 Al alloy was instability and easy to produce the defects such as undercut, bite edge; Laser power and welding speed have larger influence on the weld forming state; The microstructure of the welding joint near the fusion line is columnar and in the center of the weld is the fine equiaxed dendrites crystal, and there is a certain degree of segregation; The microhardness of welded joints are fluctuated, its hardness value than that of base metal; The tensile strength of joint is about 289MPa, the fracture position is located in the weld, and belongs to ductile fracture.
IRJET-Multi-Response Optimization of Process Parameters of TIG Welding for Di...IRJET Journal
This document discusses optimizing process parameters for TIG welding of dissimilar metals stainless steel SS-304 and mild steel Fe-410. It investigates the effects of current, gas flow rate, and root gap on the tensile strength and percentage elongation of the welded joints. Experiments are conducted using an L9 orthogonal array to vary the input parameters. Tensile testing is performed on the welded samples and ANOVA is used to analyze the results. Current is found to contribute most to tensile strength, while current contributes most to percentage elongation. Grey relational analysis is used to optimize the multiple responses of tensile strength and percentage elongation simultaneously.
REVIEW ON EFFECT OF HEAT INPUT ON TENSILE STRENGTH OF BUTT WELD JOINT USING M...ijiert bestjournal
This document summarizes a research paper that investigated the effect of heat input on the tensile strength of butt weld joints using MIG welding. The researchers found that increasing heat input affected the microstructure of the base metal and heat affected zone. Tensile strength decreased with higher heat input. Microhardness was observed to increase in the weld pool but decrease in the heat affected zone with greater heat input. Optical microscopy showed smaller dendrite sizes and spacing at low heat input compared to larger dendrites and spacing at high heat input. The extent of grain coarsening in the heat affected zone also increased with higher heat input. In conclusion, welding heat input significantly influences the properties of welded joints.
The document summarizes a study that investigated brazing 304L stainless steel corner joints using a nickel-based filler metal. Specifically:
- Brazing was performed under vacuum using a nickel-based shim and wire on 304L stainless steel sheets of different thicknesses.
- Microstructural examination found differences in the diffusion depth of nickel in the sheets based on their thicknesses. Microhardness was also affected by nickel diffusion.
- The nickel-based filler metal provided reasonable strength for the brazed joints between the 304L sheets of different thicknesses, as well as sufficient diffusion and filling for vacuum applications.
The effect of welding heat input and welding speed on microstructure of chrom...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document summarizes a research article from the International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology that studied the microstructure and mechanical properties of mild steel-copper joints created through friction welding. Key findings include:
1) Hardness tests found the weld interface had higher hardness than the base metals, with mild steel hardness increasing towards the heat affected zone and copper increasing slightly at the interface.
2) Tensile testing showed welded joints had lower strength than the base metals, failing in the reaction layer formed at the copper side near the interface.
3) Microstructural analysis found that at high rotational speeds, surface irregularities were smoothed and full bonding occurred at the interface, while low speeds allowed imp
This document provides a literature review of submerged arc welding (SAW) research. It discusses the history and process of SAW. Key points include:
- SAW involves an electric arc between a consumable electrode and the workpiece, with the arc surrounded by a bed of granular flux that prevents atmospheric contamination and increases weld pool size.
- Many studies have analyzed the effects of various SAW process parameters like current, voltage, and wire feed rate on weld properties and microstructure of steels. Properties examined include hardness, toughness, bead geometry, and heat-affected zone characteristics.
- Research has optimized SAW parameters using techniques like Taguchi methods and developed mathematical models relating inputs
Investigate Temperature Preheating on the Chill Plate to Identify Surface Cha...Natalino Fonseca
1. The document describes an investigation into the effect of temperature preheating on the chill plate to characterize the surface of ductile iron castings.
2. Samples of ductile iron were cast against chill plates that were preheated to different temperatures (500°C, 700°C, 900°C, and unheated) to study the microhardness, surface layer thickness, and elemental composition on the casting surface.
3. Preliminary results found that higher preheat temperatures produced a carbide structure on the casting surface, while no preheating resulted in a fully ferritic microstructure with uniform carbide formation and a pearlite-ferrite microstructure.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
This document summarizes Mitchell Smith's undergraduate research project on friction stir welding of similar and dissimilar metal alloys. Smith conducted trial welds of aluminum alloys to understand the friction stir welding process and machine settings. Welds were made of similar aluminum alloys and dissimilar aluminum-copper alloys. Challenges included preventing separation of metal pieces during welding. Further tests are needed to characterize the welds and properties of the welded metals, including microstructural analysis, tensile tests, and impact tests. Continued research on welding nano-reinforced metals could expand applications of friction stir welding in fields like nuclear engineering.
Optimization on Spot Weld Parameters in Resistance Spot Welding Process on AI...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
The spot welding procedure is used in a variety of industrial applications. The most critical elements influencing welding quality, productivity, and cost are the spot welding parameters. This research examines the effect of welding factors such as welding current and welding time on the strength of various welding joint designs. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is used in the automotive industry for manufacturing. This research focused on the optimization of process parameters for resistance spot welding (RSW), as well as the tensile testing and spot weld diameter. The goals of this analysis are to comprehend the physics of the process and to demonstrate the effect of electrical current, weld time, and material type on the resistance spot welding process.
1) A study investigated the microstructure and mechanical properties of TIG welded magnesium-lithium alloy plates.
2) The results showed that the microstructure in the fusion zone was refined while the heat affected zone had coarser grains than the base metal.
3) Tensile testing found that the tensile strength of the welded joint was 84% of the base metal strength due to the coarse grains in the heat affected zone causing lower mechanical properties.
IRJET- Investigation on Dissimilar Metal Welding of Stainless Steel 316 L and...IRJET Journal
The document investigates dissimilar metal welding of stainless steel 316L and mild steel A-2062 using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Sixteen samples were prepared with variations in welding speed, current, and gas pressure based on a Taguchi experimental design. Tensile testing found ultimate tensile strengths ranging from 394 to 454 MPa. Microhardness was slightly higher than the base materials in the weld zone and heat-affected zone. Microstructure analysis was conducted on samples with the highest ultimate tensile strength, highest heat input, and lowest heat input. The depth of penetration averaged 5.8484 mm and bead width averaged 4.8243 mm across samples.
IRJET- Evaluation of Mechanical and Metallurgical Properties of TIG Welded Al...IRJET Journal
1. The document evaluates the mechanical and metallurgical properties of TIG welded aluminum alloy joints. AA5083 aluminum alloy was welded using TIG welding.
2. Various tests were conducted on the welded joints, including microhardness testing, tensile testing, and microstructural analysis. Microhardness was highest in the weld zone due to changes in microstructure from welding.
3. Tensile testing results showed that the ultimate tensile strength decreased from 385 MPa in the base material to 225 MPa in the welded material, likely due to changes in microstructure and properties from the welding process.
This document provides a review of research on optimizing the characteristics of different welding processes for duplex stainless steels. It discusses how the welding parameters and phase transformations can affect the quality and properties of the weld. Specifically, it examines how the ferrite and austenite phases form in the weld bead, the effects of heat treatments on microstructure and properties, sigma phase formation, and how the welding thermal cycle impacts duplex stainless steels. The goal of the research discussed is to determine the optimal welding parameters and techniques to produce welds in duplex stainless steels with the desired mechanical properties and minimum defects.
Studies on the effects of oxidation and its repression in mag welding process...iaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the effects of oxidation and its repression in the metal active gas (MAG) welding process. The study found that carbon dioxide used as a shielding gas in MAG welding can decompose into carbon monoxide and oxygen during welding, with the oxygen promoting oxidation of the base metal and alloying elements. However, the use of electrodes containing manganese, silicon, and aluminum as deoxidizers was found to suppress this oxidation by preferentially reacting with oxygen. As a result, welds produced with a low-alloy steel electrode containing these deoxidizers had lower oxygen content and improved mechanical properties compared to welds with a mild steel electrode. The repression of oxidation during MAG welding also
Studies on the effects of oxidation and its repression in mag welding processiaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the effects of oxidation and its repression in the metal active gas (MAG) welding process. The study found that carbon dioxide used as a shielding gas in MAG welding can decompose into carbon monoxide and oxygen during welding, with the oxygen promoting oxidation of the base metal and alloying elements. However, the use of electrodes containing manganese, silicon, and aluminum as deoxidizers was found to suppress this oxidation by preferentially reacting with oxygen. As a result, welds produced with a low-alloy steel electrode containing these deoxidizers had lower oxygen content and improved mechanical properties compared to welds with a mild steel electrode. The repression of oxidation during MAG welding also
Evaluation of Hardness of Bimetallic Weld joint between SA-508Gr3 and SS-304LIRJET Journal
This document evaluates the hardness of a bimetallic weld joint between carbon steel SA 508 Gr3 and stainless steel SS 304L. The study involved welding the two metals with and without a buttering layer between them. Hardness and impact tests found that buttering improved the mechanical properties of the weld joint. Specifically, the maximum hardness was 37.5 for joints with buttering and 27.5 for joints without buttering. The buttering layer was stainless steel SS 309L deposited on the SA 508 Gr3 surface before welding.
a survey on gas metal arc welding (gmaw) reviewNEERAJKUMAR1898
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1. U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61
ISSN2183-6493
DOI: 10.24840/2183-6493_008.006_0004
Received: 2 October, 2021
Accepted: 13 June, 2022
Published: 28 November, 2022
48
Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji1, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei2, Subrata Kumar Ghosh3*
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Agartala, India (pabitramaji13@gmail.com);
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Agartala, India (bhogenrk@gmail.com);
3Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Agartala, India (subratagh82@gmail.com)
*Corresponding Author
Abstract
Copper-steel welded joints are now used widely in heat exchangers, piping and
power generation industries. Owing to their different thermal characteristics, sound
welding of the pair is a challenging task. Extensive research is carried out to achieve
successful welding of copper and steel. This article presents an insight into the works
done on the joining of copper and steel by various techniques. The microstructural
modifications in different approaches are critically presented. Mechanical properties
of joints obtained through different techniques are compared.
Author Keywords. Copper. Steel. Dissimilar Welding. Microstructure.
Microhardness. Tensile Strength.
Type: Research Article
Open Access Peer Reviewed CC BY
1. Introduction
Owing to good thermal conductivity, excellent corrosion resistance and high ductility, copper
alloys are widely used as a thermal conductive material in chemical and metallurgy industries.
However, the low strength and high thermal expansion of copper limits its uses in different
industrial applications. Therefore, the joining of copper with high-strength alloys such as steel
is of great attention to researchers. The bi-metallic joint of copper steel is extensively used in
heat exchangers in nuclear and power generation industries. Both fusion weldings and solid-
state weldings were used by researchers to obtain copper-steel joining.
The major difficulty in fusion welding of copper and steel is the huge difference in their
thermal properties. The higher thermal conductivity of copper results in the dissipation of heat
from the weld zone. Also, the difference in thermal expansion coefficient results in difference
in shrinkage during cooling. This leads to the generation of residual stress and consequently
leads to crack generation in the weldment. Therefore, special attention is required to control
the heating and cooling of the fusion joint to achieve defect-free joining. Moreover, the
differences in the metallurgical aspects of the two materials are concerning aspects of
achieving successful joining between them. Due to the metallurgical differences, in the liquid
phase, the materials tend to get separated, which leads to copper inclusion and hot cracking.
Besides laser welding and electron beam welding, TIG and other arc welding processes also
were used for the welding of copper and steel. The Fe-Cu phase diagram (Figure 1) suggests
that solid-state copper-steel bonding can be achieved at elevated temperatures. Therefore,
several solid-state techniques such as explosive welding, friction welding, diffusion bonding,
etc., were attempted for the successful fabrication of copper-steel joints.
2. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 49
Figure 1: Fe-Cu phase diagram (Mai and Spowage 2004)
In this article, the state-of-the-art of welding of copper and steel is presented. Different
approaches adopted for achieving successful joining of them are analyzed. The joint
microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints are critically discussed. Finally, the
article is summarized with some suggestions for future research.
1.1. Different welding techniques
1.1.1.Laser welding
Laser welding is one of the most used fusion welding techniques for dissimilar welding. Laser
welding of copper and steel is usually performed by offsetting the laser beam on the steel side
(Figure 2), as the melting temperature of steel is much higher than copper.
Figure 2: Schema of laser welding of copper and steel (Chen et al. 2015)
Mai and Spowage (2004) used Nd-YAG laser as the heat source focusing on the steel side to
weld copper and tool steel. They observed that due to the low heating of copper, a very thin
interface zone (~70µm) with the presence of micro-pores was formed. Chen et al. (2015)
3. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 50
adopted two different techniques of welding, such as fusion mode and welding-brazing mode,
by changing the laser beam offset and compared the joints obtained by those approaches.
They observed liquid phase separation in fusion mode and consequent reduction in interface
hardness as compared to welding-brazing joint. Also, the high melting of copper in fusion
mode resulted in the deterioration of joint toughness. Further microstructural analysis
revealed Scraggy morphology in the welding-brazing joint due to the cooling of molten steel
by cold copper. However, micro-cracks were evident in fusion joining which were eventually
filled by molten copper (Chen et al. 2013). Yao et al. (2009) welded copper and E235A steel of
different thicknesses by CO2 laser. They used different process parameters such as laser
power, offset in steel, weld geometry, etc., and evaluated the amount of copper at the fusion
zone. The high ratio of copper at the stir zone resulted in a thick fusion zone, but a significant
amount of porosity was also evident. However, low dilution of copper resulted in a pore-free
fusion zone (Figure 3).
Figure 3: (a, c) Microstructure and (b, d) corresponding elemental distribution of
laser welded copper and steel, (a, b) thinner plate, (c, d) thicker plate
(Yao et al. 2009)
Weigl and Schmidt (2010) used pulsed Nd:YAG laser with a moving heat source for spot
welding of copper and stainless steel. Although symmetric weld morphology was achieved,
porosity at the weld zone was inevitable. By using a continuous CO2 laser to weld copper and
pure iron, Phanikumar et al. (2005) observed different microstructural modifications on both
sides of the weld. Jagged microstructure of weld zone, iron-rich banded rings at copper
indicated convective material flow leading to mixing of iron and copper. Kuryntsev,
Morushkin, and Gilmutdinov (2017) used fiber laser to weld copper and austenitic stainless
steel and observed that porosity, micro-cracks and copper penetration were evident in the
joints. The defect-free joint yielded moderate electrical conductivity as compared to copper
and steel. Mannucci et al. (2018), during laser (Yb:YAG laser) welding of copper and 316L
stainless steel, observed that high laser power led to hot cracking at the weld zone. They also
concluded that the level of copper penetration significantly reduced the corrosion resistance
4. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 51
of the welded joints Copper penetration at the weld zone was also observed by Moharana et
al. (2020) during laser welding of copper and AISI 304 stainless steel.
1.1.2.Electron beam welding (EBW)
Figure 4: (a, b) Globules of steel and copper in weld zone, (c, d) microcracks and
porosity (Magnabosco et al. 2006)
Tosto et al. (2003) attempted EBW of copper and 304L and observed non-equilibrium phases
at the weld zone, which made the overall welding unstable. Magnabosco et al. (2006) also
observed poor weld zone during EBW of copper and austenitic stainless steel. They observed
porosity and microfissures along with solidification cracks at the fusion zone. Also, globules of
copper and steel were observed in a separate state from the steel and copper matrix,
respectively (Figure 4). Guo et al. (2016) also observed globular phase separation during EBW
of copper and 304 stainless steel with an offset focus of electron beam on the copper side.
However, other defects, such as cracks and porosity, were minimized with low beam offset,
and the joint resulted in high strength.
Kar et al. (2018) and Kar, Roy, and Roy (2016) observed that with proper beam oscillation
parameters, the globular phase separation, cracks, and pores were significantly reduced in
EBW of copper-304 stainless steel joints. The size and number of pores were decreased, and
high strength joint was achieved. Zhang et al. (2015), during EBW of QCr 0.8 copper alloy and
304 stainless steel, observed that the addition of copper filler at the weld interface reduced
the residual stress on either side of the joint.
1.1.3.Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)
TIG welding is the most used conventional fusion welding technique for welding copper and
steel. Munitz (1995) joined copper and stainless-steel pipes through the TIG welding
technique and observed the phase separation of copper and steel in the molten pool and their
solidification of them as distinct phases. The high cooling rate associated with TIG welding
process resulted in phase separation. Soysal et al. (2016) also observed phase separation in
TIG weld zone of copper and low carbon steel. They also observed horizontal layers in the
5. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 52
weld zone formed during the cooling of thick plate. Chang et al. (2017) welded stainless steel
with copper and copper alloy by TIG welding process and observed that the major alloying
elements of steel, such as Fe and Cr were mixed with copper. Therefore, clusters of grains
containing Fe and Cr were visible in the copper matrix. Several researchers used filler material
to achieve successful welding of copper and steel. Shiri et al. (2012) used different filler
materials for TIG welding of copper and 304 stainless steel. They concluded that the use of
copper filler yielded defect-free welding with high joint strength, whereas the use of 304
stainless steel filler and Ni-Cu-Fe filler resulted in a crack at the weld zone. Saranarayanan,
Lakshminarayanan, and Venkatraman (2019) used ErNiCu-7 as filler material to join copper
and 304 stainless steel. They concluded that the cooling was majorly influenced by the filler,
and therefore different solidification mechanisms occurred at different portions of the fusion
zone. As a result, different grain structures such as globular Fe, and dendritic Fe grains were
visible (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Different grain modifications at various regions of fusion zone in TIG
welded copper-stainless steel joint
(Saranarayanan, Lakshminarayanan, and Venkatraman 2019)
1.1.4.Other fusion welding techniques
Velu and Bhat (2013) observed that for Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding of copper and EN31
steel, nickel-based filler resulted good joining of them, whereas bronze-based filler resulted
in porosity and cracks at the weld zone. In the nickel-based joint, intermetallic diffusion was
also evident, indicating excelled joining between the weld materials. Asai et al. (2012)
adopted a hybrid MIG and plasma welding technique to join copper and steel (Figure 6). They
suggested that the hybrid process was a feasible welding technique for the dissimilar pair.
Cheng et al. (2019) used ERCuSi-A filler for double-side MIG-TIG hybrid welding of copper and
6. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 53
stainless steel (Figure 7). They observed that welding in fusion mode resulted in scraggy
interface with significant strength reduction at HAZ. The welding-brazing mode yielded defect-
free joining with diffusion of weld material in each other.
Figure 6: (a) Plasma-MIG hybrid welding setup, (b) nozzle configuration for the
welding (Asai et al. 2012)
Figure 7: Schema of TIG-MIG double side welding (Cheng et al. 2019)
1.1.5.Explosive welding
Figure 8: Schema of copper-steel explosive welding (Zhang et al. 2018)
In explosive welding of copper and steel, generally, copper is used as the base plate, and steel
is used as the flyer plate, as shown in Figure 8. Durgutlu, Gülenç, and Findik (2005) welded
copper and steel plates by explosive welding and observed a wavy interface with a high
explosive ratio and high stand-off-distance as compared to flat interface for low parameters.
They also concluded that the wavy interface exhibited higher mechanical strength. A similar
observation was made by Bina, Dehghani, and Salimi (2013) while welding copper and 304L
stainless steel. However, they analyzed the joint interface and concluded that diffusion of
weld materials did not occur in the explosive welding of copper and steel and the joint failed
in brittle manner in a tensile test. Therefore, to strengthen the bonding, they annealed the
weld, resulting in the formation of a thick diffusion zone at the interface (Figure 9). Also, the
annealed joint fractured in ductile manner. Zhang et al. (2018) examined the explosive welded
7. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 54
and annealed copper-steel joint and observed two different features at the wavy joint
interface. A thinner (~5µm) solid state joint and a wider (~50µm) vortex flow was evident at
the interface. During the tensile test, crack propagated in the copper, indicating the wavy
interlayer's excelled property.
Figure 9: Copper-steel explosive welded interface, (a) as-welded, (b) after
annealing (Bina, Dehghani, and Salimi 2013)
1.1.6.Friction welding
Friction welding is also proven to be efficient for copper and steel welding. Luo et al. (2012)
observed intermetallic diffusion during radial friction welding of brass and high carbon steel.
However, the extent of Fe diffusion in copper was higher than the copper diffusion in Fe
(Figure 10). A smooth interface was formed with some ‘furrow-shaped’ holes due to reduced
friction in brass at semi-solid state. Wang et al. (2013) also observed elemental diffusion and
consequent formation of Cu9Si and FeCu4 during radial friction welding of T3 copper and steel.
Although the intermetallic phases were not distinctly visible in the micrograph, the XRD
analysis indicated the formation of the intermetallic compounds (Figure 11a). The formation
of the intermetallic resulted in strong metallurgical bonding between the weld materials. They
also observed that recrystallization hardening did not occur at the weld interface due to plastic
deformation during welding. Sahin, Çıl, and Misirli (2013) also observed the formation of FeCu4
along with Cu2NiZn at the weld interface of friction welded 304 stainless steel and copper
(Figure 11b). However, they observed that the Fe diffusion was limited only to the interface
zone. The breaking of the copper oxide layer at the interface led to the formation of ‘dirt
repellent surfaces’ (Sahin, Çıl, and Misirli 2013).
Figure 10: Radial friction welded brass-steel joint and corresponding elemental
distribution (Luo et al. 2012)
8. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 55
Figure 11: XRD analysis of friction welded copper-steel joints
(Wang et al. 2013; Sahin, Çıl, and Misirli 2013)
1.1.7.Other solid-state welding techniques
Yilmaz and Çelik (2003) adopted diffusion bonding to join copper and 304 stainless steel and
observed good thermal and electrical conductivity in the welded structure. However, the
interface consisting of intermetallic alloy exhibited superior electrical conductivity and
modified thermal conductivity. The detailed analysis of the interface suggested that the
intrinsic diffusion coefficient of copper was higher than steel. Therefore, the intersection of
elements shifted towards copper from the original interface. Pure copper and low carbon steel
were welded by He et al. (2016) using the ballistic impact welding technique. The frictional
heat associated with the impact welding resulted in the annealing of copper near the joint
interface and a wavy interface was formed. The elemental analysis revealed that diffusion of
elements was restricted only in the vicinity of the interface and the interface was free of
intermetallic compounds (He et al. 2016). Kore et al. (2011) employed electromagnetic impact
welding to join copper and stainless steel and observed grain compression near the interface.
Also, due to the entrapment of oxide, voids were observed away from the coil. The vacuum
brazing technique was adopted for joining pure copper and 304L stainless steel by
Choudhary, Laik, and Mish (2017) while using silver-based filler and an additional Ni coating
on stainless steel. They observed that at low brazing temperatures, Ni coating led to defect-
free joining with layered interface. However, high-temperature brazing led to crack formation
at the interface due to differences in elemental diffusivity and thermal stress. Friction stir
welding was also successfully used to weld copper and stainless steel by Jafari et al. (2017).
Grain refinement at the interface and grain coarsening at the HAZ was evident in the welded
joints. Also, diffusion of Ni from steel to copper was detected from the elemental analysis
(Jafari et al. 2017). Bhogendro Meitei et al. (2018, 2020) used induction welding to weld
copper with different steels and observed diffusion of copper and iron on either side of the
interface. Owing to the diffusion, intermetallic compounds, as well as different oxides, were
formed at the interface. However, a few micro-voids and micro-cracks were also evident.
1.2. Comparison of different techniques
The mechanical behavior of copper-steel welded joints fabricated by different methods is
compared to understand the effect of different welding techniques. The typical microhardness
distribution of laser welded copper and steel joints (Figure 12a) suggests negligible distortion
in both steel and copper HAZ as the hardness of HAZs is almost similar to the respective un-
welded materials. The interface microhardness is intermediate to the copper and steel
microhardness and hardness gradient from the steel side to the copper side is also observed
(Chen et al. 2015; Weigl et al. 2010; Kuryntsev, Morushkin, and Gilmutdinov 2017; Moharana
9. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 56
et al. 2020). However, an enhancement in the microhardness of steel and copper due to
induced residual stress may also occur (Mai and Spowage 2004). The microhardness gradient
at the weld interface largely depends on copper melting and can be omitted by performing
welding-brazing join (Chen et al. 2015). EBW of copper and steel also yields similar
microhardness distribution profile with gradient in the weld zone (Figure 12b), which can be
minimized by offsetting the electron beam. However, unlike laser welding, a significant
reduction in microhardness at HAZ of copper is evident in the EBWed joints (Kar, Roy, and Roy
2016; Magnabosco et al. 2006; Guo et al. 2016). TIG welding of copper and steel leads to
softening at HAZ in both copper and steel (Figure 12c) (Chang et al. 2017; Saranarayanan,
Lakshminarayanan, and Venkatraman 2019). However, the selection of proper filler may
eliminate the softening effect (Shiri et al. 2012). The fusion zone of the TIG welded joints
exhibits a nearly homogeneous distribution of microhardness (Shiri et al. 2012;
Saranarayanan, Lakshminarayanan, and Venkatraman 2019; Chang et al. 2017). Other fusion
welding processes, such as for double side MIG-TIG hybrid welding and MIG welding, result in
uniform microhardness distribution in the fusion zone. However, the hybrid welding yields
softening of copper up to 15 mm away from the weld zone, whereas (Figure 12d) MIG welding
with Ni filler enhanced hardness in steel HAZ (Cheng et al. 2019; Velu et al. 2013). Explosive
welding of copper-steel pair leads to enhancement of hardness in the weld materials due to
strain hardening imposed during the collision (Figure 12e). Owing to the strain hardening, the
interface of an explosive welded joint may exhibit higher hardness than the weld materials'
hardness, depending on the amount of copper diffusion (Zhang et al. 2018; Bina, Dehghani,
and Salimi 2013). Enhancement of microhardness in the vicinity of the weld interface by work
hardening is also evident in the induction welding of copper and steel (Figure 12f) (Bhogendro
Meitei et al. 2018; Bhogendro Meitei et al. 2020). In friction stir welding, the interface
microhardness is observed to be higher than the un-welded materials due to intense grain
refining (Figure 12g) (Jafari et al. 2017). However, other solid-state processes, such as friction
welding and impact welding, result in no significant change in the weld material
microhardness and a sharp transition of hardness from steel to copper side is observed (Figure
12h) (He et al. 2016; Kore et al. 2011; Sahin, Çıl, and Misirli 2013).
Figure 12: Comparison of microhardness distribution in copper-steel joints
obtained by different processes (a) laser welding, (b) electron beam welding, (c)
TIG welding, (d) MIG-TIG hybrid welding, (e) explosive welding, (f) induction
welding, (g) friction stir welding, (h) ballistic impact welding
(Zhang et al. 2018; Shiri et al. 2012; Kuryntsev, Morushkin, and Gilmutdinov 2017;
Jafari et al. 2017; He et al. 2016; Guo et al. 2016; Cheng et al. 2019;
Bhogendro Meitei et al. 2018)
10. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 57
The tensile strength of the laser welded copper-steel joints depends on the process
parameters and laser beam offset. Depending on the amount of heat input, the fracture of
laser welded copper-steel joints occurs at weld zone or HAZ of copper (Chen et al. 2015;
Yao et al. 2009; Kuryntsev, Morushkin, and Gilmutdinov 2017; Mannucci et al. 2018;
Moharana et al. 2020). As high as 93% of copper tensile strength may be achieved by laser
welding of the pair (Kuryntsev, Morushkin, and Gilmutdinov 2017). In EBWed copper-steel
joints, ductile fracture takes place at HAZ of copper or in the fusion zone, depending on the
mode of joining. The EBWed copper-steel joint can exhibit a maximum of 97% of the tensile
strength of copper (Guo et al. 2016; Kar, Roy, and Roy 2016). In the case of TIG welded joints,
during tensile loading, fracture takes place at the HAZ of copper and a maximum of 96% of
copper strength can be achieved (Shiri et al. 2012; Saranarayanan, Lakshminarayanan, and
Venkatraman 2019). For double-side MIG-TIG hybrid welding of copper and steel, 84% joint
strength can be achieved, whereas MIG welding of the pair results in 79% joint strength (Velu
et al. 2013; Cheng et al. 2019). In defect-free explosive welded joints, fractures occur on the
copper side away from the weld interface, and due to the strain hardening effect strength of
the joints may be even higher than in unwelded copper (Bina, Dehghani, and Salimi 2013).
Among other solid-state welding techniques, friction stir welding results in nearly 80% joint
strength, whereas induction welding may exhibit almost 100% joint strength (Bhogendro
Meitei et al. 2020; Jafari et al. 2017).
1.3. Corrosion behavior of welded joints
The corrosion resistance of steel, especially stainless steel, derives from the passivation layer
generated by chromium; copper is a corrosion resistive material in the chemical environment
and in the atmosphere. However, in the copper-steel welded structure, the different nature
of the metals creates a galvanic couple which results in localized corrosion. Mannucci et al.
(2018) observed that in laser welded copper-steel structure, the amount of copper in the weld
zone determined the corrosion behavior of the joint in salt water. They also found that in
copper-rich zones, severe intergranular corrosion occurred. Xu et al. (2021) also found similar
severity of corrosion in the copper-rich zone for TIG welded copper-steel joint in CuSO4 and
H2SO4 solution. They observed that in the welded structure, corrosion resistance was higher
in steel and lowest in copper, whereas the welded zone yielded intermediate corrosion
resistance. In the welded zone, the γ-Fe rich phase acted as cathode and ε-Cu rich phase acted
as anode, which created micro-galvanic couples in corrosive medium. Due to the galvanic
couples, the anodic copper was dissolved rapidly and formed corrosion pits.
2. Summary and Future Research Directions
Several welding techniques adopted for copper-steel joining are discussed in this article. The
microstructural features achieved by different processes are critically analyzed.
Laser welding of copper and steel requires precise offsetting to achieve defect-free joining,
whereas copper dilution controls the weld bead appearance. Liquid phase separation is one
important aspect of the electron beam welding process, which must be controlled with proper
parameter selection to achieve sound welding. TIG and other fusion welding processes can
also produce defect-free joints with proper filler material. Solid state processes such as
explosive welding, friction welding, etc. also yield good joining of copper and steel by diffusion
of alloying elements. Owing to the diffusion of elements in solid state welding processes, a
few intermetallic compounds, such as FeCu4, Cu9Si, and Cu2NiZn, formed in the joint interface.
The compounds aid in achieving good metallurgical bonding between the weld materials.
11. Understanding the Trends in Welding of Copper and Steel
Pabitra Maji, R. K. Bhogendro Meitei, Subrata Kumar Ghosh
U.Porto Journal of Engineering, 8:6 (2022) 48-61 58
The microhardness distributions of the joints obtained by different processes suggest
softening of copper at HAZ in fusion welding processes such as laser welding, electron beam
welding, TIG welding, etc. The weld zones of fusion welded joints exhibit intermediate
microhardness of copper and steel with a gradient from the steel side to the copper side.
However, the softening of copper is not evident in solid-state weldings except in friction
welding. Also, a sharp decrease from interface microhardness to copper microhardness is
evident in solid-state welded joints. Among fusion welding processes, electron beam welded
copper-steel joints exhibit higher tensile strength, whereas, among solid-state weldings,
explosive welding of the pair may result in achieving tensile strength even higher than
unwelded copper.
The majority of the available literature is focused on the welding of copper with stainless steel
and the mechanical performance of the joints. Emphasis of further research may be given to
welding of other engineering steels and different copper alloys. Also, more in-depth
microstructural characterization such as grain orientations, residual stress, etc. may be
analyzed thoroughly to understand the joints performance in detail. The formation of
intermetallic compounds in the weld interface and their consequent effects on weld
properties, especially in solid-state welding, may be analyzed. In addition, other performance
measures, such as corrosion resistance, high-temperature performance, etc., may be
evaluated in detail.
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