Building Components and Construction in Civil Engineering

SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
[An Autonomous Institution | Affiliated to Anna University and
Approved by AICTE | Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade]
KOVAIPUDUR, COIMBATORE – 641 042.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE : 23CE101 – Introduction to Civil Engineering (ICE)
Theory (3 Credits)
I YEAR/I SEMESTER
Module - 2
Building Components and Construction
2024-10-26 1
Dr. N. Shanmugasundaram

Selection of site
MODULE 2: Building Components and Construction 15 Hrs.
Selection of site – building components – foundation, basement, wall: stone masonry, brick masonry,
column, floor, beam, roof, reinforced concrete members, staircase, lintel, slab, truss and damp-proof
course - design and construction sequences of a building - maintenance, repairs and rehabilitation –
fundamentals of town planning and smart cities – building bye laws - green building –applications of
software and IoT in civil engineering.
2024-10-26 Introduction to civil Engineering 2

Selection of site
Selection of site

Syllabus
6. Cost and Budget
Land Cost
Development Costs
7. Safety and Security
Natural Hazards
Security
8. Future Growth and Expansion
Scalability
Urban Development
9. Neighborhood and Social Factors
Community
Amenities
10. Climate and Weather Conditions
Local Climate
Sunlight and Wind Exposure
Selection of site
1. Location and Accessibility
Proximity to Infrastructure
Accessibility
2. Topography and Soil Condition
Land Slope
Soil Type
3. Legal and Regulatory Factors
Zoning Regulations
Permits and Approvals
4. Environmental Considerations
Flood Risk
Environmental Impact
5. Utilities and Services
Water Supply
Electricity and Gas

Building components

Building components
Building components

Building components
Load transfer mechanism

Building components
Foundation
• A foundation is the lower portion of building structure that transfers its gravity loads to the
earth.
• The soil /rock on which the foundation rests is called natural foundation or foundation bed and it
ultimately bears the load of the structure.
• The structural foundation or simply, foundation is therefore the connecting link between the
superstructure and the natural foundation (soil).

Building components
The objectives of providing foundations
• To distribute the total load of the superstructure on a larger area without causing failure of
the soil.
• To prevent excessive settlement of the building.
• To provide stability to the structure against various disturbing forces such as wind, rain,
earthquake etc.
• To provide a level and firm surface for the construction of the
super structure

Building components
Types of foundation
• Shallow Foundation
• Deep Foundation
Shallow Foundation: A foundation is shallow, if its depth is equal to or less than its width, suitable for
hard strata.
Type of Shallow Foundation:
1. Spread footing
2. Strap Footing
3. Combined Footing
4. Raft Footing.

Building components
1. Spread footing:
• Single Footing
• Stepped and sloped Footing
• Wall Footing
• Grillage Footing.
Single Footing: This type of foundation is suitable when there is a good strata at low depth and
depth of foundation is low and load is less.
Stepped Footing & Sloped Footing: This type of foundation is suitable when there is a good
stratum at low depth but foundation is some more deep as compared to single footing and load is
more.
Wall Footing: Wall footing is suitable for load bearing structure where depth is low and load is
also less.
Grillage Footing: When heavy structural loads from column piers are required to be transferred to a
soil of less bearing capacity.
This foundation is found lighter and more economical. It also avoids deep foundation.

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Single Footing Stepped Footing & Sloped Footing

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Wall Footing Grillage Footing

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2. Strap footing
• If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam it is called a strap footing.
It is used when distance between column is more and combine footing is not possible.
• It is also useful when any old existing structure is so near to the footing and the existing
structure does not permit the independent footing of column.

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3. Combined Footings
• A spread footing which support two or more column is termed as combined footing.
Combined footings may be of the following type
Rectangular combined footings: The combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if
they carry equal loads.
Trapezoidal combined footing: If the columns carry unequal loads, the footing is trapezoidal shape.

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4. Raft / Mat Footing
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area below the structure and
supports all the columns when the safe bearing capacity of soil is low and the building loads are
heavy.

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Deep Foundation

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Deep Foundation
Deep foundation the depth is equal to or greater than its width. Suitable for low bearing
capacity of soil.
Types of deep foundation:
• Pile Foundation
• Pier Foundation
• Well or Caisson Foundation
1.Pile Foundation
When heavy concentrated loads have to be carried out through soil strata of low bearing capacity
to deeper soil or rock having higher bearing capacity.
Bearing Piles
Piles are the poles made of timber, plain concrete, R.C.C. or steel. These piles are hammered
clown to rest on hard surface.
On top of a number of piles a concrete cap is cast and over that construction activity of building
starts.
Thus bearing piles transfer the load to hard surface directly.

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Friction Piles
When hard surface is not met at reasonable depth, the frictional resistance between the
adjoining soil and pile is checked and the pile length is kept sufficient enough to transfer the load by
friction.

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2.Pier Foundation
• Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundations but are typically larger in area than
piles.
• A pier is a heavy structural member. Usually, pier foundations are used for bridges.

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3. Caisson or Well foundation
A 'Caisson' is a box shaped type of foundation, built above ground level and sunk to the required
depth as a single unit.
They are used to refer to a water-tight chamber employed for laying foundations under
water as in lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans.
https://www.linkedin.com/posts/vincivilworld_caisson-foundation-geotechnical-activity-7227975216864358400-LGze?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop

2024-10-26
Introduction to civil
23
HAPPY LEARNING

Building components

Building components
Basement
• A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are completely or partly below
the ground floor.
• It is typically located beneath the ground floor and serves various purposes such as storage,
utility rooms, or even living spaces.
• The basement is constructed by excavating the ground and building walls and a floor slab
below the ground level.
• These walls are part of the building's foundation, helping to distribute the structure's weight
evenly and providing stability.
• Proper waterproofing and drainage are essential to prevent water infiltration and maintain the
basement's integrity.

Building components
Types of super structures based on the method of Load transfer

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Building components
Wall
Walls are built to partition living area into different parts. They impart privacy and protection against
temperature, rain and theft.
Walls may be classified as.
1. Load bearing walls
2. Partition walls.
3. Parapet walls
4. Shear walls

Building components
1.Load bearing walls
• If beams and columns are not used, load from roof and floors are transferred to foundation by
walls
• Designed to transfer the load safely.
• The critical portion of the walls are near the openings of doors and windows and the
positions where concrete beams rest.
• Minimum wall thickness used is 200 mm.

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2.Partition walls
• In framed structures partition walls are built to divide floor area for different utilities.
• They rest on floors. They do not carry loads from floor and roof.
• They have to carry only self-weight. Hence normally partition walls are thin.

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3. Parapet walls

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3. Parapet walls
A parapet wall is a short wall or heavy railing that extends from a building's wall at the edge of
a roof, balcony, terrace, or stairway. Parapets have many purposes, including:
Safety: Parapets prevent people from falling over or being attacked from the outside.
Aesthetics: Parapets can improve the look of a building.
Wind protection: Parapets can help protect against wind.
Privacy: Parapets can provide privacy.
Roof membrane termination: Parapets allow the roof membrane to terminate under a coping.

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4.Shear walls
• Shear walls are structural elements in buildings that resist lateral forces, such as wind and
seismic activity, and keep buildings stable. They are especially important in high-rise buildings.

Building components
Stone masonry
• Masonry means construction of buildings using building blocks
like stone, bricks, concrete blocks etc.
• Masonry is used for the construction of foundation, plinth, walls
and columns.
• Mortar is the binding material for the building blocks.

Building components
Types of Stone Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry 2. Ashlar Masonry.
1. Rubble Masonry:
• In this type of constructions stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used.
• To remove sharp shapes they may be hammered.
• The rubble masonry may be coursed or uncoursed.
• In uncoursed rubble masonry the wall is brought to level at every 300 mm to 500 mm.
• The mortar consumed in these construction is more.
• Course rubble masonry is used for the construction of public and residential buildings.
• Uncoursed rubble masonry is used for the construction of foundations, compound walls,
garages, labour quarters etc.
• A skilled mason may arrange the facing stones in polygonal shapes to improve the aesthetic of the
wall.

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Coursed Rubble Masonry Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

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Coursed Rubble Masonry

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Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

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2. Ashlar Masonry
• In this type of masonry stones are dressed to get suitable shapes and sizes.
• The height of the stones varies from 250 mm to 300 mm.
• The length should not exceed three times the height.
• The dressing of the stone need not be very accurate on all sides.
• Usually good dressing is made on facing side.
• In such construction mortar consumption is less compared to rubble masonry.
• Depending upon the type of dressing – Ashlar fine dressed, Ashlar rough dressed, Ashlar rock
or quarry faced, Ashlar facing, Ashlar chamfered etc.

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2. Ashlar Masonry

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Supervision of Stone Masonry Construction
• Hard and durable stones, free from defects like flaws, cavities veins etc.
• Dressing of the stones should be used as per the requirement.
• Stones should be properly wetted before they are used so as to avoid sucking of water from mortar.
• Stones should be laid on their natural bed.
• Facing and backing faces should be laid neatly and levelled and checked with wooden template.
• The heart of masonry should be filled with stone chips and mortars.
• To thick mortar joints should be avoided.
• Verticality of the wall should be frequently checked with plumb-bob.
• Mortars with correct proportion of sand and cement should be used.
• Continuous vertical joints should be avoided.
• Through stones should be used within 1.5 m distances.
• The height of masonry should be raised uniformly.
• Under the beams, trusses, sills etc. large flat stones should be used.
• Before continuing work, the masonry built on previous day should be well cleaned and freed from
loose particles.
• Curing should be done properly for 2 to 3 weeks.

Building components
Brick Masonry

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Brick Masonry
• Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar
may be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.
• The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond.

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Brick Masonry

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Stretcher bond

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Stretcher bond
• A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation.
• In the brick of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm, 190 mm × 90 mm
face is the stretcher.
• In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks are arranged in stretcher
courses.
• Care should be taken to break vertical joints.
• This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick
thick partition wall.

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Header bond

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Header bond
• A header is the shorter face of the brick.
• In a standard brick it is 90 mm × 90 mm face.
• In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in
the header courses.
• This type of bond is useful for the construction of one
brick thick walls.

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English bond

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English bond
• In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers.
• This is considered to be the strongest bond.
• Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses.
• To break continuity of vertical joints a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the
beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen closer.
• Typical one brick and one and half brick thick wall with English bond.

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Flemish bond

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Flemish bond
• In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher.
• Alternate courses start with stretcher and header.
• To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with header. Every
header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.
Flemish bonds may be further classified as
• (a) Double Flemish Bond
• (b) Single Flemish Bond.

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Flemish bond

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Points to be Observed in Supervising Brick Masonry Constructions
• Use bricks of good quality with uniform colour, well burnt, with exact shape and size.
• Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2 hours so that bricks do
not absorb water from the mortar.
• Bricks should be laid with the frog pointing upward.
• Construction of brick wall should start from the end or corner.
• Brick courses should be perfectly horizontal.
• Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with plumb-bob.
• Mortar used should be as per specification.
• Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed end.
• Use of brick bats should be avoided.
• Walls should be raised uniformly.

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Points to be Observed in Supervising Brick Masonry Constructions
• In no case difference between adjoining walls be more than 1 m.
• In a day no wall should be raised by more than 1.5 m.
• To get proper key for plastering or pointing, the face joints should be raised to a depth of 12 to 20
mm, when the mortar is green.
• If plastering or pointing is not to be provided, face joints should be stuck flush and finished neatly.
• Holdfasts for doors and windows should be embedded in brick masonry with cement mortar or
concrete, at the time of constructing the wall itself.
• Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.
• For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding should be used

Building components
Advantages of Brick Masonry Over Stone Masonry
• Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it do not need skilled labour for the construction.
• Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
• Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their weight
is less.
• Stones are to be brought from quarries which are located only at few places.
• It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry.
• For unimportant buildings even mud mortar can be used.
• Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
• It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
• Dead load of brick masonry is less.
• In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced considerably.
• Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to stone masonry

Building components
Disadvantages of Brick Masonry Over Stone Masonry
• Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry.
• Durability of brick masonry is less.
• Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing.
• Stone masonry don’t need them and hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
• Brick masonry absorbs water and there are possibility of dampness. There is no such problem in
stone masonry.
• More architectural effects can be given in stone masonry compared to that in brick masonry.
• Stone masonry gives massive appearance and hence monumental buildings are built in stone
masonry

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Building components
Columns

Building components
Columns
• Columns are structural elements that transfer the weight of the roof and other structures above
them to the elements below them. They are vertical compression elements that are used in
architecture and engineering.
Types
Based on Cross Section
• Circular Columns
• Square Columns
• Rectangular Columns
• "L" Shape Columns
• "T" Shape Columns, etc.,
Based on Construction Material
• Concrete Columns
• Steel Columns
• Timber Columns
• Composite Columns
• Stone Columns
• Brick Columns
Based on Loading
• Axially loaded column
• Biaxial loaded column
• Uniaxial loaded column

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Based on The Slenderness Ratio
• Short Columns
• Long Columns
Other
• Prestressed column
• Stub Column/ Floating column / Linked Column
Reference
https://www.civillead.com/types-of-columns/

Building components
Circular column
Circular columns are mostly used in piling and elevation of buildings for aesthetic purposes. In
circular columns, more than 4 steel bars are used as reinforcement.

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Square and rectangular columns
Square or rectangular columns are mostly used in building construction. These types of
columns are economically good and easy to construct because of their easy shuttering and
reinforcement placement.

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L and T Shaped Columns
L type columns are used in boundary wall construction and in the turning of metro rail or in
flyover construction.
T type column has same feature as square/ rectangular column and is mostly used in bridge and
retaining wall construction.

Building components
V- Type Column:-
As the name indicates, this column resembles a V shape and is suitable for a trapezoidal shape
room and aesthetic purpose. It needs more concrete in comparison to other shape columns.

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Hexagon Column:-
They are modified columns with six sides and provide a better pictorial view, usually preferred
for elevation.
These shapes columns offer an elegant look to the building, primarily used in the cinema hall,
auditoriums, verandah, etc.

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Y – Type Column:
Y-types of columns are primarily used in the construction of pillars for flyovers, bridges, etc.

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Y type Column with Arch
This column is similar to the y shape column except for sides or curved edges. Usually, they are
used to construct pillars for flyovers and bridges to bear the heavy load with limited space.

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Based On Reinforcement Type
Tied Column
This column is mainly made of reinforced concrete in which the main bare enclosed within nearly
spaced stirrups/lateral ties is known as tied column.

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Spiral Column
This column is also made of reinforced concrete in which main bars are enclosed within closely spaced
and continuously looped spiral reinforcement.

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Composite Column
In this type of column, longitudinal steel is provided in the form of steel pipe or section with or
without main longitudinal bars is termed the composite column.

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Based On Loading Type

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Based on Loading Type
Axially loaded column
If the vertical compressive load acts on the column’s cross-section centre of gravity, it is called an
axially loaded column.
Uniaxial Eccentric loaded column
Suppose the vertical compressive load’s line of action doesn’t coincide with the column’s cross-section
centre of gravity and acts eccentrically either on the X-axis or y-axis. In that case, it is referred to as a
uniaxially eccentrically loaded column.
Biaxial Eccentric loaded column
Suppose the vertical compressive load’s line of action doesn’t coincide with the column’s cross-section
centre of gravity and doesn’t either on the X-axis or y-axis. In such a case, it is known as a biaxially
eccentrically loaded column.

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Based on Slenderness ratio

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Short Column
If the column’s effective length to its least lateral dimension ratio is less than 12, it is termed the
short column. These columns fail due to the crushing of concrete.

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Long Column
• If the column’s effective length to its least lateral dimension ratio passes 12, it is termed the long
column. These columns fail due to bending or buckling.
• These columns are weaker in comparison to short columns for the same cross-section area and
generally not favored.

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Difference b/n short and long column

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Based On Material For Construction
RCC Column
• RCC columns consist of reinforced cement concrete in which steel bars are provided as
reinforcement.
• Primarily these columns are used for all types of buildings and other RCC structures such as
bridges, tanks, etc.
• Concrete performs better in compression but is weak in tension.
• Therefore it is reinforced to increase its performance under tension.

Building components
Steel Column
• These columns are made of steel sections primarily used for heavy load in the construction of
industrial buildings.
• Steel structures are more robust, flexible, and durable in contrast to concrete structures. Steel
columns are available in various shapes such as L, I, H, etc.

Building components
Timber Column
• These columns are made of wood and are mainly used for light loads. Timber columns are
generally used in wooden houses and small trusses and are also known as posts.
• You can see these columns in old houses because this is the readily available construction material at
that time.
• It is a solid and durable material for construction but requires proper treatment. Seasoning of
timber is performed to enhance its properties.

Building components
Masonry Column
Masonry columns are made of brick masonry mainly used for light loads and elevation purposes.
It has an essential role in giving support and stability to the masonry building. These columns may
be constructed in different shapes such as circular, square or rectangular, etc.

Building components
Stone Column
These columns are made of stone and are mainly practiced for appreciative purposes. These
columns enhance the aesthetic appearance of the building and provide an elegant look.

Building components
Beam
• Beams are horizontal structural members in a building that transfer loads from the floors,
roofs, or walls to columns or supports.
• They play a crucial role in distributing the weight of the structure and ensuring its stability.

Building components
Functions of a Beam
Support Loads: Beams carry vertical loads, such as the weight of floors, roofs, and sometimes even
walls.
Transfer Loads: They transfer the loads they bear to columns or supports, which then carry the load
down to the foundation.
Resist Bending: Beams must be able to resist bending forces caused by the loads placed on them.

Building components
Types of Beams:
Simply Supported Beam:
• Supported at both ends.
• The ends can rotate, and it experiences bending in the middle.
Fixed Beam:
• Fixed at both ends, preventing any rotation.
• Experiences both bending and shear forces.
Cantilever Beam:
• Fixed at one end and free at the other.
• Commonly used in balconies or overhangs.
Continuous Beam:
• Supported at more than two points.
• Spans over multiple supports and is more efficient in load distribution.
Overhanging Beam:
• A beam with one or both ends extending beyond the supports.

Building components
Types of Beams:

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Materials Used for Beams:
Reinforced Concrete Beams (RC Beams):
• Made of concrete with embedded steel
reinforcement bars (rebars).
• Used in residential, commercial, and high-rise
buildings.
Steel Beams:
• Made of steel sections such as I-beams or H-beams.
• Common in industrial and multi-story buildings due
to their high strength-to-weight ratio.
Wooden Beams:
• Used in residential buildings or temporary
structures.
• Lighter and easier to work with but less strong
than concrete or steel.

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Building components
Flooring

Building components
Flooring
Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The floors
directly resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey are known as
upper floors.
Ground Floor
• Apart from giving good finished surface, these floors should have good damp resistance.
• The ground surface is rammed well and a layer of red earth or sand is placed which is
compacted.
• A layer of broken bricks, stones etc. is provided up to 150 mm below floor finish level and
rammed.
• While ramming the surface is kept moist to get good compaction.
• Then 1 : 4 : 8 concrete of 100 to 150 mm thickness is provided as base course. Over this bed
floor finish is laid.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• These floorings are used in low cost housing, specially in
villages.
• Over the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided.
• The floor needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a weak.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get pleasing
appearance.
• Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips embedded
in cement mortar.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of China
glazed or of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or
cement mortar.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm thickness.
• They are laid on floors similar to other tiles.
• With power driven machine surface is polished to get even and shining
surface.
• This type of flooring is widely used in hospitals and temples

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• This is an alternative to terrazo flooring, used commonly used in
residential, office and commercial buildings.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• Timber flooring are used in dancing halls and in auditoriums.
• Timber plates may be directly placed on concrete bed or may be provided
over timber frame work.
• In latter case it is necessary to provide proper ventilation below the floor.
• This flooring is costly.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C
• Tiles or sheets of rubber with fillers such as cotton fibres, asbestos fibre
or granulated cork are manufactured in variety of patterns and colours.
• These sheets or tiles may be fixed to concrete or timber floors.
• These floors are attractive and noise proof.
• However they are costly.

Building components
Types of flooring
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
4. Cement concrete
5. Terrazo
6. Mosaic
7. Marble
8. Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11. P.V.C

Building components
Roof
Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind and sun.
1. Flat roofs
2. Pitched roofs
3. Shells and folded plates.

Building components
Roof
• Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate.
• Pitched roofs are preferred wherever rainfall is more.
• Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large column free areas required for
auditoriums, factories etc.
1. Flat Roofs
• These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to drain out the
rain water.
• All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs.
• Many times top of these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water
proofing chemicals in concrete, providing coba concrete.
• With advent of reliable water proofing techniques such roofs are constructed even in areas with
heavy rain fall.

Building components
Advantages of flat roof
• The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
• At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
• They can suit to any shape of the building.
• Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
• They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
Disadvantages of flat roof
• They cannot cover large column free areas.
• Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks.
• Once leakage problem starts, it needs costly treatments.
• The dead weight of flat roofs is more.
• In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.
• The initial cost of construction is more.
• Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.

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2. Pitched (or) Sloped Roofs:
In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slope of roof shall be
more than 10°. They may have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also.
The sloped roofs are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned
structures like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses.
In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on
suitable structures.
1.Single roofs 2.Double or purlin roofs 3.Trussed roofs.
Lean to roofs
Coupled roofs
Coupled-close roof
Collar beam roof

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Double or purlins roofs Truss

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3. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs
• Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small compared to the
other dimensions.
• In these roofs lot of load is transferred by membrane compression instead of by bending as
in the case of conventional slab and beam constructions.
• Caves are having natural shell roofs.

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3. Types of shells and Folded Plate Roofs

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Advantages of shell roofs
• Good from aesthetic point of view
• Material consumption is quite less
• Form work can be removed early
• Large column free areas can be covered.
Disadvantages
• Top surface is curved and hence
advantage of terrace is lost.
• Form work is costly
Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs Over Shell Roofs
Advantages
• Form work required is relatively simpler.
• Movable form work can be employed.
• Design involves simpler calculations.
Disadvantages
• Folded plate consume more material than
shells.
• Form work can be removed after 7 days while
in case of shells it can be little earlier.

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Building components
Reinforced concrete (RC) members
• RC members are structural elements made from a combination of concrete and steel reinforcement.
• The steel reinforcement (usually in the form of bars or mesh) is embedded within the concrete to
improve its tensile strength, which concrete alone lacks.
• These members are fundamental in building construction due to their strength, durability, and
ability to resist various forces.
Beams Columns Slabs
Footings Walls Frame
Staircases Retaining Walls Shear Walls
Lintels Girders

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Guess the topic

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Staircase

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Staircase
Stairs give access from floor to floor. It consists of a number of steps arranged in a single flight or
more number of flights.
Width: 0.9 m in residential buildings and 1.5 m to 2.5 m in public buildings.
Number of Steps in a Flight: Maximum number of steps in a flight should be limited to 12 to 14,
while minimum is 3.
Rise: Rise provided should be uniform. It is normally 150 mm to 175 mm in residential buildings
while it is kept between 120 mm to 150 mm in public buildings. However in commercial buildings
more rise is provided from the consideration of economic floor area.
Tread: Horizontal projection of a step in a stair case is called tread. It is also known as going. In
residential buildings tread provided is 250 mm while in public buildings it is 270 mm to 300
mm.

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Types of Stairs
The stairs may be built with wood, concrete masonry or with cast iron. Wooden stairs are not
safe, because of the danger of fire.
However they are used in unimportant buildings to access to small areas in the upper floors. Cast
iron or steel stairs in the spiral forms were used commonly to reduce stair case area.
In many residential buildings masonry stairs are also used. Reinforced concrete stairs are
very commonly used in all types of buildings.
Based on the shapes stairs may be classified as
(a) Straight stairs (b) Dog legged stairs (c) Well or open-newel stairs
(d) Geometrical stairs (e) Spiral stairs

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Straight stairs

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Dog Legged Stairs

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Well or Open-newel Stairs

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Geometrical stairs

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Spiral Stairs

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Turning Stairs

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Salient Points to be Considered in Locating Stairs
It should be located near the main entrance to the building.
It should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the rooms.
It should be spacious approach.
Good light and ventilation should be available

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Lintel
A lintel is a horizontal beam that spans an opening in a building, such as a door, window,
portal, or fireplace.
Its main function is to support the weight of the structure above it and distribute it to the
vertical supports around it.

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Lintel
• The end bearings for the lintel should be at least 200 mm.
• The width of lintels is same as that of wall.
Lintels of various materials are used.
• Wood
• Stone
• Brick
• R.C.C.
• Steel.

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Wood Lintel: It may be a single piece or may be assembled by joining 2 to 3 pieces.

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Stone Lintels: Wherever stones are available stone beams are used as lintels. As stone is
weak in tension they can be used only for small spans.

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Brick Lintels: Well burnt, good quality lintels are laid on ends or edges to form lintels. It needs temporary
form work at the time of construction.

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R.C.C. Lintels: It is possible to provide R.C.C. lintels of any span required in the building. They can be isolated
or continuous over the openings. They are provided with suitable reinforcement—main reinforcements
beings on lower side in the opening.

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Steel Lintels: Steel angles or rolled steel I-sections are used as lintels. Tube separators may be
provided to maintain the spacing between the sections. If the sections are opened to atmospheric action,
regular painting is necessary.

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Slab

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Slab
A slab in building construction is a flat, horizontal concrete element that forms a building's floors,
ceilings, or roofs. Slabs are a vital part of a building's structure, providing a stable base to support
other elements like walls, columns, and beams.
Materials Used in Slabs
Concrete
The primary material used for slabs, offering compressive strength.
Steel Reinforcement (Rebars or Mesh)
Used to handle the tensile forces that concrete cannot resist.
Pre-stressed Steel
Used in pre-stressed or post-tensioned slabs for higher strength and load-carrying capacity.

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Key Functions of Slabs
Load Distribution:
Slabs distribute the load over a large area to the beams and columns, ensuring the structure's
stability.
Support for Floors and Roofs:
They form the base for the floors in buildings and are often used to support roof structures.
Separation Between Levels:
Slabs act as a floor for one level and a ceiling for the level below in multi-story buildings.
Thermal and Acoustic Insulation:
Concrete slabs can provide good thermal mass and sound insulation.

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1. One-Way Slab
Description: Supported by beams on two opposite sides; load is carried in one direction.
Use: Suitable for rooms where the length is more than twice the width.
2. Two-Way Slab
Description: Supported by beams on all four sides; load is distributed in both directions.
Use: Used when slab length and width are relatively equal.

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3. Flat Slab
Description: Slab without beams, directly supported by columns.
Use: Common in commercial buildings for simpler formwork and aesthetics.

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4. Hollow Core Slab
Description: Precast slab with hollow cores to reduce weight while maintaining strength.
Use: Ideal for large-span areas like parking structures and industrial buildings.

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5. Waffle Slab
Description: Grid-like slab with ribs in both directions, often used for aesthetic ceilings.
Use: Used in buildings requiring column-free spaces, such as auditoriums.

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6. Cantilever Slab
Description: Extends beyond the support structure, creating overhangs.
Use: Common for balconies and canopies.

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7. Precast Concrete Slab
Description: Slabs cast and cured in a factory, then transported to the site.
Use: Speeds up construction in large-scale projects.

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Building components
Truss
A truss in a building is a structural framework composed of triangular units designed to support
loads, such as roofs, floors, or bridges.
The triangular shape provides strength and stability, making trusses an efficient and effective way
to distribute weight across larger spans while minimizing material use.
Trusses are commonly made of steel or wood and are widely used in both residential and commercial
construction.

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Truss

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Advantages of Using Trusses
Efficient Material Use:
Trusses allow for greater spans using less material compared to solid beams.
Cost-Effective:
By minimizing the amount of material needed, trusses reduce construction costs.
Lightweight:
Despite their strength, trusses are lightweight, making them easier to install.
Versatility:
Trusses can be customized to suit a variety of architectural designs and load conditions.
Load-Bearing Capacity:
Trusses distribute loads evenly, making them ideal for supporting large roofs and floors.

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Types

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Damp-proof Course
A damp-proof course (DPC) is a horizontal barrier in a building's foundation walls that
prevents moisture from rising up and damaging the interior spaces. It also prevents salts and
minerals from the soil from penetrating the interior of the wall.

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Materials Used for Damp Proofing:
Bituminous Felt:
A common material used for horizontal DPC in walls. It is flexible and waterproof.
Polyethylene Sheets:
Often used as a membrane under floors or between wall layers.
Metal Sheets (Lead, Copper, Aluminum):
Durable and effective for preventing moisture ingress, particularly in harsh environments.
Asphalt:
Used in floors and roofs for a continuous waterproof barrier.
Liquid Waterproofing Compounds:
Applied as a coating on walls or floors to create a damp-proof layer.

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Applications of Damp Proof Units
Floors
DPC is often placed beneath concrete floors to prevent moisture from the ground from rising into
the building. It is typically placed below the concrete slab.
Walls
A damp-proof course is installed in walls just above the ground level to prevent rising damp. In
cavity walls, a DPC can also be placed between the inner and outer layers.
Foundations
DPC can be used to waterproof foundations, ensuring moisture doesn’t seep into the structure
through the base.
Roofs
In some cases, DPC is used in roofing systems to prevent moisture penetration from the top of
the building.

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Design and construction sequences of a building

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Design and construction sequences of a building
1. Preconstruction process
Acquiring land
Initial meeting
Planning
Estimating and budgets
Schedule
2. Building construction phase
Site preparation
Marking of Layout
Excavation
Foundation
Column Casting
Construction of Walls
Lintel
Roofing
Plastering Work
Fixing of Doors and Windows
Fixing of Electrical and Plumbing Works
Tiles Laying
Painting
3. Post construction process
Closeout / handover

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Marking of Layout
The approved plan boundaries are marked in the ground first and the ground inside and outside
the layout is cleaned. Later the complete layout is marked on the ground with accurate dimension and
orientation.

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Excavation
Generally excavation is carried out for the construction of wall foundations. Excavation should be
carried out as per the drawings defined lengths & widths. Suitable machines are used to excavate the
earth for the making of foundation.

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Foundation Work

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Foundation Work
1. Compacting the ground
The excavation pits are trimmed and dressed as per the requirement and the bottom is compacted using
hand compactors.
2. PCC
To form a solid bases on which the reinforcement can be tied and footing can be placed. Plain cement
concrete of the mix 1:4:8 or 1:3:6 is laid on the compacted soil in varying depth as required.
3. Footing Reinforcement
Reinforcement steel bars are tied together and placed on the PCC to form a skeleton in which the
concrete is poured and the column rods are taken from them.

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Foundation Work
4. Shuttering
To achieve proper shaped concrete, shuttering is done as per the dimensions mentioned in the drawing.
It is also done so that the concrete doesn't come in contact with the soil .
5. Footing Concrete
It is very necessary to check the levels of foundation before concrete work. There are patches where
excavated depth slightly exceeds and vice versa.
Concrete is poured as per drawing specs Depth of foundation varies from 9” to 18” and normally for
most of the cases it is considered as 12’’ depth.

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Column Casting
Casting of columns is made by fixing the shuttering framework and concrete is poured in the
formwork. The shuttering is usually removed after 24hr of casting and curing is done.

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Construction of Walls
• Walls are constructed using many materials such as brick, wooden, precast concrete and many
other.
• Before starting the wall construction the base of wall is constructed first using concrete or size
stone masonry.
• The height of the walls depends upon the floor height.
• Necessary opening are to given for doors, windows and ventilators.

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Lintel
• Masonry work of buildings is carried out in one go till roof. Openings for windows & doors are left
during masonry works.
• Reinforced cement concrete beams are laid down on the top of openings. So, those loads of
structure above openings not directly come on to the door frames.
Roofing
• Roof slab of building is poured after completion of masonry works. Now a days, roofing is of
reinforced cement concrete slab. Slab thickness & reinforcement details should be according to
approved drawings.

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Plastering Work
• Form work is removed after 14 days of slab pouring. Now plaster work begins.
• Mortar for plaster work is generally of 1:3 or 1:4 is used.
• Thickness of plaster layer should not be more than 0.75inch.
• Cure the surface about 7 days. So that, plaster gain proper strength.

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Fixing of Doors and Windows
• Traditionally, doors and windows of woods are used. But, steel & aluminum is also not a bad choice.
In case of wooden doors & windows, frames are fixed in walls during masonry work.
• Panels are then fixed with hinges after plaster work.
• Steel and aluminum doors are fixed after completion of paint works.

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Fixing of Electrical and Plumbing Works
• The necessary electrical and plumbing works are carried out before the final finishing works
such as painting and tiles laying is done so as to reduce the damage.

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Tiles Laying
Majorly tiles are laid in the bathrooms and kitchen area. First the wall tiles are fixed after which the
floor tiles are fixed.
For flooring works, granite, marble, tiles , epoxy are also used.

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Painting
Painting consists of different sequences depending upon the type of finished required.
1 coat of primer and 2 coat of water based paint is also done or 2 coat of putty and 2 coats of painting is
done for the smooth finish.
It defers for outside and inside works.

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Miscellaneous Works
Other than all these above mentioned works, there are other works that are carried as per the
requirement of the consumer and design engineer.
• Terrace water proofing
• landscaping works
• False Ceiling
• Installation of Furniture

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Maintenance, repairs and rehabilitation
What is the difference between these 3?
REPAIR - 1
REHABILITATION - 2
MAINTENANCE - 3

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Repair
• It refers to correct the deteriorated or faulty materials, modification of a structure, partly or
wholly , which is damaged in appearance or serviceability
• Umbrella term that includes all types of work done at a site or on real property, including
alterations, painting, remodelling, transportation of construction and furnishing goods and
material etc., undertaken by a contractor or sub-contractor.

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Rehabilitation
• It is the process of restoring the structure to service level, once it had and now lost.
• Strengthening consists in endowing the structure with a service level, higher than that initially
planned by modifying the structure not necessarily damaged area.

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Maintenance
• Maintenance of building is defined as the work done to keep the civil Engineering structures in
working condition so as to enable them to carry out the functions for which they are constructed.

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Objectives of maintenance:
• To preserve in good condition buildings and services.
• When deterioration occurs due to any reason it is inevitable to restore it to its original standard.
• To make improvements whenever required.
• To sustain utility value.
A good maintenance team has to ensure
1.Safety
2.Efficiency
3.Reliability

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Necessity of the maintenance
1.Improves the life of structure
2.Improved life period gives better return on investment
3.Better appearance and aesthetically appealing Leads to quicker detection of defects and
hence remedial measures
4.Prevents major deterioration that leads to collapse
5.Ensures safety to occupants
6.Ensures feeling of confidence by the user

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Classification of Maintenance Work:
• Preventive Maintenance
Before the defects occurred or damages developed
• Remedial Maintenance
After the defects or damage occurs in the structures.
Finding the deterioration:
 Determining the causes.
 Evaluating the strength of the existing structures.
 Evaluating the need of the structures.
 Selecting and implementing the repair procedure

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Classification of Maintenance Work:
• Routine Maintenance
 Maintenance attended to the structure periodically.
 It depends upon specifications and materials of structures ,purpose , intensity and condition of use .It
is done by the fund provided annually, which is normally 1.5% of the cost of construction.
 It includes the inspection, planning the program and executing the same.
 It includes white washing, patching repair to plaster, replacement of fitting and fixtures,
blinding of road surface
• Special Maintenance
 work not covered in routing program or the annual repair is done under special condition
 It may be done for strengthening and updating of the structure to meet the new condition of usage
or to increase its serviceability.
 It include particular or complete renewal, such as renewal of floors, roofs etc.

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Inspection
• An inspection involves checking something, i.e., examining and assessing something.
• We may inspect a building or organization to make sure that it meets specific standards.
• In the world of business, inspection is the critical appraisal of materials, items, or systems
involving examination, testing, and gauging.

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Regular Inspection Maintenance:
• Daily Routine Maintenance
• Inspection of all essential items by visual observation
• Check on proper function of sewer, water lines, wash basins, sinks etc.
Weekly Routine Maintenance
• Electrical Accessories
• Flushing sewer line
• Leakage of water line
Monthly Routine Maintenance
• Cleaning Doors, windows, etc.
• Checking Septic Tank/Sewer
• Cleaning of overhead tanks
Yearly Routine Maintenance
• Attending to small repairs and white washing
• Painting of steel components exposed to weather

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Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:
For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be taken into account.
1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.
2) Presentation and documenting the damage.
3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.
4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.
5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.
6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
7) Diagnosis.
8) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.
9) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.
10) Assessment of structural adequacy.
11) Estimation of future use.
12) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.
13) Post repair evaluation through tests.
14) Load test to study the behaviour.
15) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.

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Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:

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Deterioration and its causes
It is defined as the defect or damage occurred in the structure due to various reasons which tend to
affect the durability of the structure.
• A symptom of reduced quality or strength(or)
• Process of changing to an inferior state(or)
• The process of becoming progressively worse.
Causes of deterioration of structures:
1. Deterioration due to corrosion
2. Environmental effects
3. Poor quality material used
4. Quality of supervision
5. Design and construction flaws
6. Deterioration due to corrosion
7. Environmental effects

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Fundamentals of town planning and smart cities

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Fundamentals of town planning and smart cities
The fundamentals of town planning and the concept of smart cities are crucial to developing
sustainable, efficient, and livable urban environments.
Fundamentals of Town Planning
Town planning involves designing and organizing the physical, social, and economic infrastructure
of urban areas to ensure proper land use, connectivity, and sustainability.
Zoning
Dividing urban land into zones based on use, such as residential, commercial, industrial,
recreational, etc.
Land Use Planning
Assigning specific functions to different areas of a town, ensuring that land is used optimally for
housing, business, green spaces, and infrastructure.

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Transport and Accessibility:
Planning for efficient movement of people and goods via roads, public transport, pedestrian
pathways, and cycling routes.
Infrastructure Development:
Provision of essential services such as water supply, electricity, waste management, drainage,
and sewage systems.
Public Spaces and Recreation:
Planning for parks, playgrounds, and community spaces.
Environmental Consideration:
Incorporating green belts, conserving natural resources, and ensuring that development is
sustainable.

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Building Regulations and Housing:
Establishing rules and guidelines for building construction, height, density, and design standards.
Urban Aesthetics:
Emphasizing the visual appeal of towns through well-designed buildings, streetscapes, and public
spaces.
Economic Planning:
Supporting commercial areas, industrial hubs, and business development to boost economic
growth.
Health and Safety:
Planning for emergency services, hospitals, schools, and fire protection.

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Fundamentals of Smart Cities
Smart cities use technology and data-driven solutions to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and
quality of life in urban areas. Here are the core elements:
ICT Integration (Information and Communication Technology):
Using digital technologies and sensors to monitor and manage city functions (traffic, utilities, public
services).
Sustainable Urban Mobility:
Promoting smart transportation systems, including electric vehicles, public transport apps, bike-
sharing, and intelligent traffic management.
Smart Infrastructure:
Embedding sensors in infrastructure (roads, bridges, buildings) for monitoring and maintenance.

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Renewable Energy and Smart Grids:
Utilizing solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources along with smart grids for energy
distribution.
Smart Waste Management:
Using smart bins, recycling systems, and IoT (Internet of Things) for waste tracking and efficient
disposal.
E-Governance:
Providing digital platforms for citizens to access public services, file complaints, and engage with
local authorities.
Smart Water Management:
Using IoT-based systems to monitor water usage, detect leaks, and manage distribution.

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Environmental Sustainability:
Incorporating green buildings, smart irrigation, air quality monitoring, and reducing carbon
footprints.
Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence (AI):
Collecting and analyzing data from sensors and urban infrastructure to make informed decisions.
Citizen Engagement and Quality of Life:
Involving residents in decision-making processes through apps, platforms, and social media.
Smart Healthcare:
Leveraging telemedicine, health monitoring devices, and AI for better healthcare delivery.
Smart Security Systems:
Utilizing surveillance cameras, AI-based monitoring, and smart emergency response systems.

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Affordable Housing:
Implementing smart designs and sustainable practices to create affordable housing options.

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Building bye laws
• It is also known as building codes or regulations, are a set of rules and guidelines established by
local, regional, or national authorities to govern the construction, renovation, and maintenance of
buildings.
• These bye-laws are essential for ensuring the safety, structural integrity, and functionality of
structures and promoting the well-being of occupants and the environment.
• However, the specifics of building bye-laws can vary significantly from one jurisdiction to
another, reflecting local conditions, cultural preferences, and technological advancements.

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Building bye laws
• Building bye-laws serve as essential legal instruments employed to govern and control various
aspects of construction, including parameters such as building coverage, height, the extent of
construction, and architectural designs.
• These regulations play a crucial role in steering and managing the development of a region in an
organised and sustainable manner.
• In addition to these primary functions, building bye-laws encompass a broader set of
responsibilities, such as promoting safety, ensuring adherence to environmental standards,
facilitating urban planning, and harmonising with the cultural and historical context of the
area.
• These multifaceted regulations thus serve as a cornerstone in the responsible and well-balanced
growth of a locality.

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Purpose of Building Bye-laws
• Ensure safety in construction.
• Regulate building design and size.
• Prevent unplanned development.
• Promote environmental considerations.
• Enhance urban aesthetics.
• Facilitate ease of business.
• Address emerging technologies.
• Ensure public health and accessibility.

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Importance of Building Bye-laws
• The implementation of building bye-laws is imperative for safeguarding structures from potential
threats like noise disturbances, fire hazards, seismic activity, structural vulnerabilities, and
other unsafe practices.
• Regrettably, numerous small and medium-sized constructions in India are erected without
adhering to these regulations, resulting in unregulated and often hazardous building practices
characterized by excessive coverage and precarious development.
• This lack of oversight contributes to disorderly and unsafe urban environments.

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Objectives of Building Bye-laws
Guidelines for Architects and Engineers
Building bye-laws serve as crucial guidelines for architects and engineers, facilitating the pre-
planning of building provisions and activities, which enhances the construction process's efficiency and
effectiveness.
Preventing Unplanned Development
One of the primary roles of building bye-laws is to prevent haphazard or unplanned development,
ensuring that new constructions align with the broader urban planning goals.
Ensuring Safety
Building bye-laws are instrumental in safeguarding the lives and well-being of those who work and
reside within these structures.
They address concerns related to fire safety, noise control, health hazards, and structural integrity.

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Key Aspects Governed by Building Bye-laws
Set-back or Building Line:
• Building bye-laws dictate the minimum
open space required in front of buildings
facing a road, known as the set-back or
building line.
• This regulation aims to maintain street
aesthetics, prevent overcrowding, and
enhance safety by improving visibility.
• Set-back areas can also be repurposed as
parking spaces or green areas.

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Need for Building line:
1.If absolutely necessary, the land contained in set-back may be acquired for the purpose of
widening of the road.
2.The setback at corner improves visibility and impart safety to the moving traffic.
3.The space of setback can be used as a parking place or for developing a garden.
4.It provides protection of buildings from street disturbances.
5.It reduces the danger of fire by increasing the distance between the opposite buildings.

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Floor Space Index (FAR) or Floor Area Ratio: FAR, expressed as the ratio of a building's total floor
area to the land area it occupies, is used to control the intensity of development. It's a tool for
regulating population density. For instance, a FAR of 1.5 means the total floor area is 1.5 times the
land area.

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Built-up Area: The built-up area is the plot area minus the space allocated for open areas. Building
codes specify the maximum permissible built-up area based on the plot size to prevent
overdevelopment.

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Size of Rooms: Building bye-laws stipulate minimum room sizes to ensure adequate space for health
and proper ventilation. Different types of rooms have specific size requirements, promoting
comfortable living conditions.

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Height of Buildings: The height of buildings is determined based on street width, to maintain urban
aesthetics and safety. Narrower streets have lower height allowances.

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Lighting and Ventilation: Building codes mandate the provision of windows and ventilators to
ensure sufficient room lighting and ventilation. The minimum opening areas are stipulated for different
climate conditions.

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Water Supply and Sanitary Provisions: Building codes set standards for water supply and sanitation
facilities, such as taps, sinks, water closets, and washbasins, based on the type of building.

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Wrong method

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Structural Designs: Building bye-laws require structures to be designed to withstand safe loads,
earthquakes, and other environmental factors. General guidelines for foundation depth, width, and
concrete usage are provided.

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Green building

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Green building
• Sustainable site planning.
• Building Design Optimization.
• Energy Performance Optimization.
• Renewal Energy Utilization.
• Water and Waste Management.
• Solid Waste Management.
• Sustainable Building materials and
Construction Technology.
• Health, well being and
Environmental Quality.

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Green building
• Green Building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) expands and
compliments the building design concerns of economy, utility, durability and comfort.
• A Green Building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves
natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier space for occupants as
compared to conventional building.
• Green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact on human health and natural
environment.
• Using energy, water and other resources efficiently.
• By reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation.

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Objectives of Green Building
• Protecting Occupant Health
• Improving employee productivity
• Using energy, water and other resources more efficiently
• Reducing overall impact to the environment
• Optimal environmental and economic performance
• Satisfying and Quality Indoor spaces

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Fundamental principles of Green Buildings
• Structure design efficiency
• Energy efficiency
• Water efficiency
• Materials efficiency
• Waste and toxic reduction
Structural design efficiency
• It is the concept of sustainable building and has largest impact
on cost and performance
• It aims to minimize the environment impact associated with all
life-cycles
Energy efficiency
• The layout of the construction can be strategized so that natural
light pours for additional warmth
• Shading the roof with trees offers an eco-friendly alternative to
air conditioning

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How to make a building Green
• Sustainable site planning with bioclimatic architectural planning
• Design energy efficient lighting and HVAC ( Heating, Ventilation, and Air conditioning ) system.
• Use low energy and renewable materials.
• Choose construction materials and interior finishes products with zero or low emissions to
improve indoor air quality.
• Use dimensional planning and other material efficiency strategies.
• Design for gray water system that recovers rain water for site irrigation and dual plumbing
system for use of recycled water for toilet flushing.

Building components
Need of Green Buildings in present scenario
• Buildings are responsible for 40% of world wide energy flow and material use conventional
buildings have been identified as the largest source of green house gas emissions, even more than
that of the transport and industry sector.
• 8000lbs of waste are typically thrown into a landfill during the construction of a 2000sqft home.
• The buildings in the US consume more than twice as much energy as all the cars in the US.
• Buildings account for 68% of total electricity consumption in the US.
• Buildings use 80% of total drinking water consumption in the US.
• Indoor levels of pollution are commonly 2 to 5 times higher than outdoor pollution levels.

Building components
Benefits of Green Buildings
Environmental Benefits
• Protect Biodiversity and ecosystems
• Improve air and water quality
• Reduce waste streams
• Conserve natural resources
Economic Benefits
• Reduce operating costs
• Create, Expand and Shape markets for green product
and services
• Improve Occupant Productivity
Social Benefits
• Enhance occupant comfort and health
• Heighten aesthetic qualities
• Minimize strain on local infrastructure
• Improve overall quality of life

Building components
Merits and Demerits of Green Building
Merits
• Efficient Technologies
• Easier Maintenance
• Return of Investment
• Improved Indoor Air Quality
• Energy Efficiency
• Water Efficiency
• Waste Reduction
• Temperature Moderation
• Water Conservation
• Economical Construction for Poor
• Healthier Lifestyles and Recreation
• Improved Health
Demerits
• Initial Cost is High
• Availability of Materials is Less
• Need More time to Construct
• Need Skilled Workers

Building components
Different Levels Of Green Building Certification
• Certified to recognize best practices (30-36 Pts)
• Silver to recognize outstanding performance(37- 44 Pts)
• Gold to recognize national excellence ( 45- 55 Pts)
• Platinum to recognize global leadership (56-75 Pts)

Building components
Applications of software and IoT in civil engineering
• AutoCAD
• Autodesk Revit
• STAAD Pro
• SAP2000
• ETABS
• Primavera
• ArcGIS
• Microsoft excel, etc.
AutoCAD
A popular CAD software used to create civil engineering drawings,
including structural details and layouts

Building components
Autodesk Revit
A Building Information Modeling (BIM) software that lets users design buildings and other structures
in 3D

Building components
STAAD Pro
A sophisticated software program used to analyze and design structures like buildings, bridges, and
tunnels

Building components
SAP2000
An all-in-one software for analysis and design that can be used on any structure project

Building components
ETABS
A renowned CAD software used to create systems and analyze and build product designs

Building components
Primavera
A software used by civil engineers, architects, and construction companies throughout the project
lifecycle

Building components
ArcGIS
A map-making software used in civil engineering, urban planning, and agronomy

Building components
Applications of IoT in civil engineering
Waste management
IoT technologies can help construction teams track and reduce waste.
Remote monitoring
IoT can improve automation and remote monitoring for many tasks, allowing operators to stay
hands-off more often.
Structural health monitoring
Monitoring strategies can help assess long-term structural behavior, schedule maintenance, and
ensure occupant safety.
Analytics
Find patterns, crunch data, perform forecasts, and integrate machine learning.

Building components
Applications of IoT in civil engineering
Predictive maintenance
IoT-connected sensors can monitor performance factors to determine when a machine needs
repair.
Project management
Civil site engineers may use employee management software programs to keep track of employee
schedules, requests, and project details.
Fleet management
Sensors located in lorries and ships can help fleet managers calculate the speeds at which they are
traveling.

2024-10-26
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HAPPY LEARNING

Building Components and Construction in Civil Engineering

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